1 


DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN. 1923, No. 27 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND 
AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE 

ITS EVOLUTION AND CONTRIBUTION 
TO EDUCATION AS A FEDERAL 
LAND-GRANT COLLEGE 

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

WALTON C. JOHN 

UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 

WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 


CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE UNITED STATES 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 


























BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

1922. 

No. 1. Recent State legislation for physical education. W. S. Small. 

No. 2. Administration of schools in the smaller cities. W. S. DeffenbaUgh. 
No. 3. Preparation of teachers of the social studies for the secondary schools. 
Edgar Dawson. 

No. 4. Statistics of private commercial and business schools. H. R. Bonner. 
No. 5. Reorganization of home economics in secondary schools. 

No. 6. State policies in public school finance. Fletcher H. Swift. 

No. 7. Report on the higher educational institutions of Arkansas. 

No. 8. Statistics of teachers’ colleges and normal schools. H. R. Bonner. 

No. 9. Statistics of private high schools and academies, 1919-20. H. R. 
Bonner. 

No. 10. Supervision of rural schools. Katherine M. Cook. 

No. 11. Accredited secondary schools in the United States. G. F. Zook. 

No. 12. Dormitories in connection with public secondary schools. Edith A. 
Lathrop. 

No. 13. Review of educational legislation, 1919 and 1920. Wm. R. Hood. 

No. 14. Status of sex education in the high schools. Newell W. Edson. 

No. 15. A kindergarten first-grade curriculum. 

No. 16. The district owned or controlled teachers’ home. John C. Muerman. 

No. 17. Statistics of city-school systems, 1919-20. H. R. Bonner. 

No. 18. The residence of students in institutions of higher learning. G. F. Zook. 
No. 19. National conference of junior colleges, 1920. G. F. Zook. 

No. 20. State laws relating to education, 1920-21. Wm. R. Hood. 

No. 21. Record of current educational publications, May 15, 1922. 

No. 22. Statistics of kindergartens, 1919-20. H. R. Bonner. 

No. 23. High-school buildings and grounds. 

No. 24. The school janitor. A study of the functions and administration of 
school-janitor service. J. A. Garber. 

No. 25. Higher education in Australia and New Zealand. Charles F. Thwing. 
No. 26. Philanthropy in the history of American higher education. Jesse B. 
Sears. 

No. 27. Statistics of agricultural and mechanical colleges for 1919 and 1920. 
Walton C. John. 

No. 28. Statistics of universities, colleges, and professional schools, 1919-20. 
No. 29. Statistics of State school systems, 1919-20. Florence DuBois and H. R. 
Bonner. 

No. 30. Accredited higher institutions. G. F. Zook. 

No. 31. University summer schools. J. C. Egbert. 

NO. 32. A program of education in accident prevention, with methods and re¬ 
sults. E. George Payne. 

No. 33. Record of current educational publications, September, 1922. : 

No. 84. Statistics of land-grant colleges, 1921. L. E. Blauch. 

No. 35. First national conference on the work-study-play or platoon plan. 
Alice Barrows. 

(Continued on page 3 of cover.) 





























































' 
























s 
























BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 1 


















SAMUEL CHAPMAN ARMSTRONG, HOLLIS BURKE FRISSELL, 

The founder and first principal of Hampton Institute. Born in 1839, died Second principal of Hampton Institute, 1893 to 1917. Born in 1851, died 

in 1893. in 1917. 






DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
U ' BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, No. 27 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND 
AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE 

ITS EVOLUTION AND CONTRIBUTION 
TO EDUCATION AS A FEDERAL 
LAND-GRANT COLLEGE 

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

WALTON C. JOHN 

UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 

WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 

CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE UNITED STATES 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1923 












ADDITIONAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM 
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 

AT 


25 CENTS PER COPY 


PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS 
COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 


LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

RECEIVED 




DOCUMENTS DIVISION 


J 






39//S Izj 


f ' 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter of transmittal_____ v 

Educational contribution of Hampton Institute—By Walton C. John_ 1 

The influence of Hampton—By William H. Taft_ . 3 

History and educational philosophy—By James E. Gregg_ 4 

Administrative organization—By William H. Scoville_ 11 

Financial history—By Frank K. Rogers_ 17 

Record office—By Myrtilla J. Sherman_ 20 

The academy and normal school—By Henry J. Doerman_ 24 

The Whittier Training School—By Sarah J. Walter_ 36 

The agricultural school—By Warren K. Blodgett_ 41 

The trade school—By Win, Anthony Aery_ 57 

The home-economics school—By Carrie A. Lyford_ 78 

The business school—By Ethel C. Buckman_ 85 

Education of Indians—By Caroline W. Andrus_ 89 

Physical education: 

a. Physical education for boys—By Charles H. Williams_ 93 

b. Physical education for girls—By Olive B. Rowell_ 95 

Discipline—By Maj. Allen W. Washington_ 98 

Extension work—By J. L. Blair Buck__ 102 

General aspects of growth—By George P. Phenix_ 105 

The museum—By Cora M. Folsom_ 107 

The publication office—By Jane E. Davis_ 109 

Hampton’s influence-—By Wm. Anthony Aery_ T _ 110 

Index_ 117 


hi 

























ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate 1. Samuel Chapman Armstrong and Hollis Burke Frissell—Frontispiece. 

Page. 

2 a. The Collis P. Huntington Library_ 10 

25. The Robert C. Ogden Auditorium_ 30 

3. The Memorial Church__ 11 

4 a. Class in physics_ 42 

45. Working an agricultural project_ 42 

5 a. Class in agricultural chemistry_ 43 

5 b. The dairy herd_ 43 

G. Hampton Institute from the water front_ 58 

7ff. The Armstrong-Slater Memorial Trade School__ 59 

75. Bricklaying and plastering_ 59 

Stf. The carpenter shop_ 74 

85. Carpenter class' using wood-working machines_ 74 

9(7. Studying the design of roofs_ 75 

95. Building a 22-inch turret lathe in the machine shop_ 75 

10(7. Class in dressmaking_ 90 

105. Clasgs in weaving_ 90 

31(7. Practical gardening for girls_ 91 

115. Class in cooking_ 91 

12(7. The annual anniversary celebration_ 306 

325. Clarke Hall_ 106 

13. Hampton Institute battalion_ 107 


IV 
























LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 


Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Education, 
Washington, D. 0., April 27, 1923. 

Dear Mr. Secretart: The problem of negro education, particu¬ 
larly with reference to its vocational and industrial aspects, is one 
of increasing importance to the United States. The following study, 
which has been prepared under the direction of Dr. Walton C. John, 
of this bureau, has for its purpose to show the results of a well 
conceived and well supported plan of education in agriculture, 
mechanic arts, domestic science, and the training of teachers in 
these subjects. 

In order that the contributions of this institution may serve to 
stimulate and encourage other schools engaged in a similar educa¬ 
tional program, I recommend the publication of this bulletin. 

Respectfully, 


The Secretary of the Interior. 


John J. Tigert, 

Commissioner. 





. 

■- iiiof yjfms rr J.tiw ‘ 

- 





. 









HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF HAMPTON INSTITUTE. 

By Walton C. John, 

Specialist in Rural and Technical Education. 


The pressure of economic development in the United States dur¬ 
ing the quarter of a century before the Civil War led to a new and 
definite movement for the development of scientific and industrial 
education. The Morrill Act, signed by President Lincoln July 2, 
1862, signalized this movement and made possible the establishment 
of colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts throughout the United 
States. Owing to the war only the Northern States were in a posi¬ 
tion to accept at once the provisions of the new act, but as soon as 
peace was established the Southern States one by one accepted its 
provisions. Almost from the beginning the Southern States pro¬ 
vided for students of the negro race by an appropriate division 
of the Federal funds and by additional State support. In this 
way the negro land-grant college in the South, although largely ele¬ 
mentary and secondary in grade during the earlier years, began to 
contribute to the educational and economic welfare of the colored 
people as well as to that of the white race. 

In 1870, Hampton Institute, through an act of the Virginia State 
Legislature became a quasi-public institution and thus began to 
receive a portion of the Federal land-grant fund. Until 1920 
Hampton retained this relationship with the State of Virginia and 
the United States. At that time the State of Virginia decided to 
concentrate Federal and State funds upon institutions which had 
been founded as strictly publicly controlled institutions. During 
this long period, Hampton, in addition to the Federal support, 
sought and gained an increasing amount of private aid. In 1874, 
two years after beginning to receive Federal aid, the total income 
of Hampton Institute was $39,726, of which $10,360, or 26 per cent, 
Was from the Federal Government. In 1920, the year in which 
Hampton returned to a purely private foundation, her total income 
reached the sum of $458,911, of which $26,135, or 5.7 per cent, was 
from Federal sources. It is apparent from these figures that, not¬ 
withstanding the increase in Federal aid, the income from private 




2 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

sources has come to be the principal asset and has brought the in¬ 
stitution into a position of growing power. 

The increasing prosperity of Hampton over a period of one-half 
a century has made possible, as far as financial support is con¬ 
cerned, the carrying out of policies which have fully justified them¬ 
selves as manifested by the influence of the institute in its particular 
field. Furthermore, the institute has had the advantage of execu¬ 
tives and teachers of large caliber who in long tenure of service have 
developed a stability and continuity of purpose throughout the his¬ 
tory of the institution. 

Hampton Institute has therefore developed an educational tech¬ 
nique in several lines which is of interest especially to those institu¬ 
tions that are still trying to find their way under difficulties and 
that for lack of vision as well as lack of support are unable to 
reach the high ideals of training which have resulted from the care¬ 
ful working out of the Hampton program. In ceasing its relationship 
to the Federal Government, Hampton depends upon its own re¬ 
sources and those of its friends. Nevertheless, Hampton, in view of 
the long-continued Federal support, can give to the general public 
the benefit of a statement of her stewardship and by so doing be of 
great assistance to other institutions with similar problems in indus¬ 
trial and vocational education. 

Considerable detail has been included for the benefit of those who 
desire to study more intimately the scope and content of work car¬ 
ried on in a school of this type. Notwithstanding the successes of 
the several departments of the institute, the members of the staff 
w T ould be the last to feel that they had reached perfection. Con¬ 
sequently it is believed that those who are striving to develop in¬ 
dustrial education on a higher plane will be greatly encouraged and 
benefited by reading these pages. Not only the land-grant colleges 
for the colored race, but also many of our industrial institutions for 
whites, need a greater vision of their work. 

The following contributions aim to give briefly the growth and 
development of the educational practices which have led to the pres¬ 
ent program. 


THE INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 

By William Howard Taft, 

Chief Justice of the United States, and President of Hampton Institute Board of Trustees. 

Hampton as an educational institution presents two aspects. One 
is that of a place of instruction where young men and women may 
be taught how to use their heads and hands effectively, how to learn 
and how to work, how to become educated with general information 
and mental training, and how to apply these to labor in such a way as 
to make that labor effective for future use in earning a livelihood 
and in proving the value of the possessor as a citizen of the com¬ 
munity in which he is to live his life. 

While there were others before him in the union of study and labor 
in the preparation for life, General Armstrong is entitled to the great 
credit of making an institution of mental and physical training and 
applying it successfully to the rescue of a backward race from the 
ignorance and weakness and dependence of a state of slavery. It 
\fas one of the first great vocational and industrial training schools 
of this country and one of the first of the world. It demonstrated 
its usefulness in dealing with the most difficult material, and, with¬ 
out regard to its moral, racial, political, and spiritual importance, it 
puts General Armstrong in the first rank of progressive educational 
leaders in this country. 

The second aspect of Hampton education is in the use of the re¬ 
ligious spirit and the discipline of labor to make the students at 
Hampton real men and women, with a full sense of the difficulties 
they must face in struggling against the inevitable obstacles to their 
progress—social, racial, and political. 

Armstrong taught the dignity of labor by teaching how much it 
could accomplish in material gain, in discipline of character, and in 
happiness. He taught the comfort and inspiration of real religion, 
and he united them all—practical learning, manual skill, the train¬ 
ing and discipline of labor, and religious inspiration to make Hamp¬ 
ton men and women the leaders of their race and missionaries of 
the gospel of practical and uplifting Christianity. 

The result has demonstrated that in the principles that Armstrong 
taught is to be found the solution of our race problem in this coun¬ 
try. Here is to be found the explanation of the marvelous progress 
which the statistics show has been made by the negro race in the 
half century of “ up from slavery.” Among the chief factors in 
this, so far as it represents real progress of the negro, are to be 

3 


4 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE, 

counted Samuel C. Armstrong, Hollis B. Frissell, and the greatest 
and most distinguished graduate of Hampton, the founder of Tus- 
kegee, that great American, Dr. Booker T. Washington. 

The Hampton of to-day in material growth is far beyond what 
Armstrong left it. There is a great plant on an inlet of Chesapeake 
Bay and there is a handsome endowment, not large enough for 
all the purposes of the institution, but one far beyond the dreams of 
the founder. 

The influence of Hampton upon its students is one of the most 
striking instances of personal inspiration that the writer has ever 
seen. Each year a company of men and women deeply interested in 
the cause of negro education and uplift meet at Hampton’s com¬ 
mencement and drink into their souls the spirit that the atmosphere 
and the environment and the attitude of the students and faculty 
give. 

Hampton is a place for pessimists to visit that they may be cured 
of their unhappy state of mind. It is a place for materialists to go 
that their hearts may be opened and that they may be taught the 
value of unselfish help to others in securing happiness for the helper. 
It is a place for statesmen to visit in order that there may be re¬ 
vealed to them a way of creating citizens wdio shall strengthen^ 
State. It is a place for him who would seek evidences of the great 
moral return to this country from the sacrifices of the Civil War to 
find them at Hampton in palpable form. It is a place for the south¬ 
ern white man, anxious for the promotion of his section of the 
country, to go that he may realize, as so many of his fellows now do, 
how essential and how possible it is to make his black fellow citizens 
of the fair South a source of profit, of peace, of law and order, and 
of general community happiness. 

Upon the southern white man depends the solution of the race 
problem, and one of the hopeful signs is his growing interest in the 
method of solving it at Hampton and Tuskegee and the other great 
negro educational institutions of the South. 

For these reasons it is that a description of Hampton and its work¬ 
ing should be given conspicuous importance and place in a bulletin 
of education issued by the National Government. 


HISTORY AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY. 

James E. Gregg. 

Principal, Hampton Institute. 

The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute came into being 
in 1868. From March, 1872, to December, 1920, it was the so-called 
“ land-grant college ” for the negroes of Virginia, the institution that 



HISTORY AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY. 


5 


is designated by act of the general assembly of the Commonwealth 
to receive that portion of the revenue of the land-grant fund and the 
supplementary Morrill-Nelson appropriation allotted for the educa¬ 
tion of negro students in agriculture and the mechanic arts. 

In 1920 this designation was transferred to the Virginia Normal 
and Industrial Institute at Petersburg, a State-supported and State- 
controlled institution. 

In 1867 the American Missionary Association, a religious and 
educational organization, representing chiefly the constituency of the 
Congregational Churches of New England, adopted the urgent sug¬ 
gestion of Gen. Samuel Chapman Armstrong that a “ normal school ” 
be established among the negroes on the Virginia Peninsula. The 
association authorized for this purpose the purchase of the Wood 
farm, also known as “ Little Scotland," the site recommended by him. 

GENERAL ARMSTRONG ELECTED PRINCIPAL. 

During the Civil War the association had established a number 
of elementary schools in the Hampton neighborhood, but it was evi¬ 
dent that an institution of higher grade was also needed. 

General Armstrong, who in March, 1866, had become district agent 
for 10 counties of eastern Virginia of the Federal “ Bureau of 
Befugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands,’ 7 had not expected to be 
principal of the new school, but, as he said, “ only to help.” 

The man originally chosen by the American Missionary Associa¬ 
tion for the post declined, however, and it was offered to Armstrong, 
who consented to take it as an addition to his other responsibilities. 
The school attracted him because it embodied a recurrent dream 
which he had had, particularly when serving with negro troops on 
the Gulf coast in 1865. 

General Armstrong was also reminded of the manual-labor school 
at Hilo, on the Island of Maui, where his parents, who were mission¬ 
aries, had lived, and where he had grown up; and he felt confident 
that some such school as this could be made of the greatest useful¬ 
ness in lifting the negroes out of the ignorance and helplessness in 
which slavery had left them. 

THE AIM OF THE INSTITUTE STATED. 

Said General Armstrong at a later date: 

Till then my own future had been blind; it had only been clear that there 
was a work to do for the ex-slaves. * * * The thing to be done was clear; 

to train selected negro youth who should go out and teach and lead their 
people, first by example, by getting land and homes; to give them not a dollar 
that they could earn for themselves; to teach respect for labor; to replace 
stupid drudgery with skilled hands; and to these ends to build up an indus¬ 
trial system, for the sake not only of self-suppor f and intelligent labor, but also 
for the sake of character. 


6 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


On April 15, 1868, the school was opened with 2 teachers and 15 
pupils. In his first report to the trustees, presented in 1870, General 
Armstrong says: 

There are two objective points before us, toward one or the other of which 
all our energies must soon be directed as the final work of this institute. 
One is the training of the intellect, storing it with the largest amount of 
knowledge, producing the brightest examples of culture. The other is the more 
difficult one of attempting to educate in the original and broadest sense of 
the word, to draw out a complete manhood. The former is a laborious but 
simple work. The latter is full of difficulty. It is not easy to surround the 
student with a perfectly balanced system of influences. The value of every 
good appliance is limited, and ceases when not perfectiy adjusted to the higher 
end. The needle, the broom, and the washtub, the awl, the plane, and the 
plow become the allies of the globe, the blackboard, and the textbook. 

The course of study does not run smoothly. There is action and reaction, 
depression and delight; but the reserve forces of character no longer lie 
dormant. They make the rough places smooth. The school becomes a drill 
ground for future work; it sends men and women rather than scholars into 
the world. 

In 1870 the institute was granted a charter by the General As¬ 
sembly of Virginia, which made it independent of any society or 
religious denomination, and the entire property was transferred by 
deed to its trustees from the American Missionary Association. 

The association and the Freedmen’s Bureau gave generous finan¬ 
cial aid to the establishment of the new school, particularly for the 
purchase of the land and the putting up of the first buildings; but 
from 1872 onward the institute was supported almost entirely by 
funds derived from other sources. The churches and individual 
friends in the North, whom General Armstrong visited with tireless 
diligence in behalf of his enterprise, proved especially generous and 
steadfast in their aid, and a partial endoAvment was slowly gathered. 

The material equipment of Hampton Institute was greatly in¬ 
creased, and all its earlier gains were, so to speak, consolidated, with 
remarkable success, by Dr. Hollis Burke Frissell, the second prin¬ 
cipal, who, after 13 years’ service as chaplain, succeeded General 
Armstrong upon the latter’s death in 1893 and carried the respon¬ 
sibilities of administration, guidance, interpretation of policies to 
outsiders, with innumerable concomitant tasks, until his own death 
in 1917. If General Armstrong was the founder of Hampton Insti¬ 
tute, Doctor Frissell is deservedly called its builder. 

PRESENT EQUIPMENT AND WORK. 

The result of the labors of these men and of many more who might 
be named is seen in Hampton Institute as it is at the present time. 
The little school of 2 teachers and 15 pupils has growm into one 
enrolling over 2,300 students (including the Whittier training school, 


HISTORY AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY. 7 

the summer school, the ministers’ conference, and the farmers’ con¬ 
ference), with an instructing staff of 150 or more. Its two farms— 
Whipple and Shellbanks—comprise 913 acres. The campus includes 
75 acres more. There are three buildings devoted to recitation 
rooms and laboratories, besides the Shellbanks farm school; the 
main and auxiliary buildings of the trade school; six dormitories 
for young men and five for young women; an administration build¬ 
ing; the memorial church; an assembly hall seating 2,000; a com¬ 
modious library of 48,000 volumes with a circulation, in 1920, of 
17,345; a museum possessing 2,000 articles; and 67 cottages occupied 
by members of the staff and their families. 

The institute proper (not including the Whittier training school, 
the summer school, or the minsters’ and farmers’ conferences), in 
the year 1921-22, enrolled 868, of whom 34 were disabled soldiers 
sent by the Federal Board for Vocational Education for special 
short courses designed to fit them for self-support and usefulness in 
civil life. 

Apart from these ex-soldiers, there are 515 young men and 319 
young women, divided among the preparatory class (eighth grade) ; 
the academy; the trade school, in which blacksmithing, bricklaying 
and plastering, carpentry, cabinetmaking, automobile mechanics, 
machine work, painting, printing, tailoring, steamfitting and plumb¬ 
ing, and wheelwrighting are taught; the normal school; the home- 
economics school; the business school; and the agricultural school. 
These four latter schools carry their students two years—and, in 
the case of the agricultural school, three years—beyond the second¬ 
ary course of the academy. 

Many boys and girls take their first year in “the work class,” 
working with their hands by day on the farms, in the shops, offices, 
kitchens, and elsewhere, and going to classes in the evening. By 
this means they pay their way, accumulate a fund of savings for 
the following year, and gain a valuable training in industry, thor¬ 
oughness, obedience, punctuality, neatness, courtesy, and other funda¬ 
mental virtues. 

WORK OF THE HANDS HAS DISCIPLINARY VALUE. 

General Armstrong’s outstanding principle was that work with 
the hands is of high disciplinary value, physically, intellectually, 
morally. Doubtless this idea was not original with him; but he so 
emphasized, explained, and illustrated it that it may be justly re¬ 
garded as his distinctive contribution to educational philosophy. 
Thus the threefold discipline of “head, heart, and hand,” of the 
mind, the conscience, and the will, has become the concise statement 
of the Hampton-Tuskegee type of training for life. 


8 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

The plan of requiring or at least of permitting students to do a 
part of the routine labor of their school was certainly not new. 
Oberlin, Mount Holyoke, and other northern institutions were 
familiar with it. Armstrong, however, perceived the mistake of 
looking upon this handwork as merely an irksome necessity. At 
Hampton he turned it to glorious gain; and did not hesitate to 
declare his conviction that this is regularly possible. u The moral 
advantages of industrial training over all other methods,’' he wrote 
in 1872, “ justify the expense.'’ 

In 1892 he wrote: 

The manual-labor system was made fundamental here from the first for its 
own sake, with full conviction of its value in the symmetrical development of 
the individual or the race, and with readiness to sacrifice to this the necessary 
per cent of mere mental culture. 

Again: 

Character is the best outcome of the labor system. * * * It is not cheap, 

but it pays. 

Again: 

Honestly given value for value, labor becomes a stepping-stone, a ladder, to 
education, to all higher things, to success, manhood, and character. 

Still again: 

Labor, next to the grace of God in the heart, is the greatest promoter of 
morality, the greatest power for civilization. 

The comment of an educational expert of high authority is worth 
noting on the relation of labor to civilization. Prof. Paul H. Hanus, 
in the first chapter of his “ Survey of Hampton Institute,” made for 
the General Education Board in 1917, writes: 

The negro race still feels the influence of slavery. Too many negroes regard 
work with the hands as beneath the dignity of free men. Fundamentally 
wrong as this notion of such work is, it is still firmly and widely held. Ac¬ 
cordingly, it offers a frequent and troublesome obstacle to the development of 
the right kind of training, particularly agricultural and industrial training, in 
the negro schools of the South. 

WORK IS THE FOUNDATION OF ALL WELFARE. 

Hampton sets its face squarely against this mistaken notion and substitutes 
for it the proper conception of work as the foundation of all welfare, spiritual 
as well as material. It aims to arouse and develop in its students an apprecia¬ 
tion of the dignity and practical value of intelligently performed manual 
labor; to do this, not by precept, but by directed work with the hands; to 
cultivate in them through work and study the self-respect that is the natural 
concomitant of trained ability to be useful in a skilled vocation. 

Students at work under the direction of officers and teachers are, accordingly, 
everywhere in evidence. The whole institute—buildings, shops, laundry, 
kitchens, offices, farms, and gardens—is to a large extent utilized as a labora¬ 
tory in which “ the virtues of work ” may be acquired, and the satisfaction 
afforded by work well done may be habitually experienced. 


HISTORY AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY. 


9 


ALL WORK MUST BE DIRECTED BY INTELLIGENCE. 

But work with the hands as an educational instrument must not be mere 
manual labor, or even mere mechanical skill, important as this last is. Such 
work must be directed by intelligence. Practice in handicrafts must be ac¬ 
companied by such a study of the practice that it is shot through with signifi¬ 
cance. The sciences, mathematics, and drawing that underlie the practice 
of the machinist, the farmer, and the home maker, must be drawn upon so as 
to give real insight into the scope and the details of the work done; and the 
relation of any one practical art to the others as a part of the total Work 
whereby society keeps itself going must be made apparent. To that end the 
institute causes its students to study books, and makes use of instruction and 
other means of intellectual guidance to give the workers an understanding of 
their work. The less conspicuous intellectual work of the classroom, there¬ 
fore, accompanies the more conspicuous work with the hands; so that the 
workman may be enabled to work with understanding; and, what is equally 
important, with the abiding interest that such understanding develops. The 
fact that this educational work has a commercial value contributes an ele¬ 
ment of great importance to the student’s appreciation of its significance, and 
his interest in it. 

Closely connected with the discipline of handwork is the discipline of the 
fully occupied day. This has been compared by Dr. Talcott Williams to the 
unslackening program of “ prayer, work, and reading,” which prevailed in the 
medieval monasteries of northern Europe and undoubtedly had much to do 
with their civilizing efficiency. 

CHARACTER THE AIM. 

Armstrong’s theory of education lays constant emphasis on char¬ 
acter. “ The education needed is one that touches upon the whole 
range of lifg, that aims at the formation of good habits and sound 
principles.” 

The question with the negroes is not one of special proficiency, of success 
in one direction—the pursuit of knowledge—but of success all around. It is 
one of morals, industry, self-restraint; of power to organize society, to draw 
social lines between the decent and the indecent, to form public sentiment that 
shall support pure morals, and to show common sense in the relations of life. 

I think we may reasonably hope to build * * * an institution that will 

aid freedmen to escape from the difficulties that surround them, by affording 
the best possible agency for their improvement in mind and heart, by send¬ 
ing out, not pedagogues, but those whose culture shall be upon the whole cir¬ 
cle of living, and who, with clear insight and strong purpose, Mill do a 
quiet work that shall make the land purer and better. 

To this day this purpose has been maintained. Hampton men and 
women are expected to go out as true servants and leaders of their 
people; and, therefore, it is understood that they must be morally 
trustworthy. Dishonesty, uncleanness, viciousness of any sort can 
not be tolerated. Yet patience must be shown toward those who 
are willing but slow to learn better ways than those in which they 
have been brought up. General Armstrong said: “Habits can not 
be reversed at once like a steam engine. It takes time, and in time 
it can be done.” 


10 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


MEN AND WOMEN TRAINED FOR COMMUNITY SERVICE. 

The expression of character in daily work is strikingly brought 
out by Professer Hanus in his survey: 

Whatever else character means, it certainly means the intention and the 
ability to do well whatever work one has to do. Hence, the kind of service 
that a woman renders in the home, or that a man renders as a plumber, 
machinist, farmer, or in business activities both suggests their ideals of con¬ 
duct and shows the extent to which their performances square with their 
ideals—that is, the kind of work one does reveals his character. As a man 
works, so is he. 

A man who is industrious, intelligent, and skillful challenges the respect 
and confidence of his fellow men. Accustomed to painstaking labf)r to make 
his resources for usefulness effective, he is self-reliant and independent; but 
his self-reliance and independence are tempered with modesty. The quality 
of service a man renders in his vocation, therefore, suggests to his fellow men 
the quality of extra-vocational community service he might render. It thus 
becomes the means of establishing significant relations for cooperative service 
with his fellow men. To equip every graduate for community service on the 
basis of such relations is one of Hampton’s most important aims. 

From the beginning the graduates of the institute have been ex¬ 
pected to be self-supporting, self-respecting, and, in the presence of 
others who need help, self-forgetting. To regard their education as 
something given to them in trust, as something to be taken back to 
their home communities or to others equally deserving of aid and 
there applied for the common good—this is the purpose with which 
two generations of Hampton men and women, over ten thousand 
in all, have been sent forth. 

COMMUNITY NEEDS ARE MET. 

This responsibility for meeting actual community needs rather 
than individual demands for personal culture has been felt and 
acknowledged again and again in the organization of the courses of 
study. When General Armstrong, against the advice and the wishes 
of some, if not of most, of his counselors, boldly insisted on leaving 
out Latin and Greek from his curriculum, and devoting the atten¬ 
tion of his teachers and pupils to “ an English course, embracing 
reading and elocution, geography, mathematics, history, the sciences, 
the study of the mother tongue and its litereature, the leading prin¬ 
ciples of mental and moral science, and of political economy,” he was 
simply giving his boys and girls what they most needed, with their 
manual training, in order to make them most serviceable to their 
people. He was not following the educational fashions of the time, 
or seeking to make Hampton Institute like any other school in the 
United States, but merely to give its young men and young women 
the kind of training that would best fit them for actual life. 

For the same reason the institute is at the present time raising 
certain of its courses from secondary to semicollegiate and even col- 


BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 2 



A. THE COLLIS P. HUNTINGTON LIBRARY. 
This library contains about 50,000 volumes. 



B. THE ROBERT C. OGDEN AUDITORIUM. 

This auditorium accommodates 2,500 people and it cost about $200,000, 





















BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 3 



THE MEMORIAL CHURCH. 

A gift of the Frederick Marquand estate, through M r. E. B. Monroe, of the 
board of trustees, and Mrs. Monroe. 










ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION. 11 

legiate levels. The conditions and the needs of the people have 
changed. Hampton Institute must change accordingly. 

Finally, this sketch of the history and the guiding principles of 
Hampton Institute would be seriously inadequate if it did not 
frankly recognize the religious quality of its influence. 

“ Hampton Institute is essentially a spiritual enterprise, conceived 
as a form of missionary service,” says Doctor Peabody. There is 
no getting away from this fact. 

The Christian motive, in the fullness of its breadth and depth and power, 
is the driving force, the spirit in the wheels of the school’s machinery. 
Its work is carried on, necessarily, in an atmosphere of reverence, faith, hope, 
and love. Its teachers agree with Armstrong that “ it pays to put God 
and country first, ourselves afterwards.” Its students strive to become not 
only skillful workmen and keen scholars, but also, and even more, good 
men and women, honest, courteous, gentle, patient, brave, truthful in word 
and deed; qualified for intelligent happiness, for honorable citizenship, for 
leadership in service. 


ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION. 

William H. Scoville, 

Secretary , Hampton Institute. 

The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute is a privately 
supported institution, organized under a charter which was granted 
by the Elizabeth City County of Virginia on September 21, 1868, 
and later incorporated under an act of the General Assembly of 
the State of Virginia, which was approved on June 4, 1870. 

Under its corporate name, “ The Trustees of the Hampton Normal 
and Agricultural Institute,” its rights, privileges, and duties are 
as follows: * 

To possess or buy or sell land or other property—“ provided the 
real estate owned shall not exceed at any one time 1,200 acres ”; 
and among the other usual duties of trustees; 

To choose “ by ballot a president, secretary, treasurer, and such 
officers, teachers, or agents as it shall deem necessary and to remove 
the same at pleasure, two-thirds of a quorum concurring in said re¬ 
moval” ; 

To fix salaries and duties of officers and teachers; 

To fill vacancies in the board of trustees ; 

To suspend or amend any by-laws by two-thirds vote of the 
trustees present at any meeting duly called; 

To be exempt from taxation so long as other institutions of 
learning in Virginia are exempt; 

To report to the governor or State superintendent of education 
upon request; 

47096°—23-2 



12 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


To make contracts and in general to manage the affairs of the 
institution. 

The object of the institute is: 

The instruction of youth in the various common school, academic, and col¬ 
legiate branches, the best methods of teaching the same and the best mode of 
practical industry in its application to agriculture and the mechanic arts; 
and, for the carrying out of these purposes, the said trustees may establish any 
departments or schools in the said institution. 

THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. 

As incorporated, the institute is owned and controlled by a self- 
perpetuating board of trustees, which, serving without compensation 
and meeting at least once a year and possessed of a common seal, is 
entitled under the name of “ The Trustees of the Hampton Normal 
and Agricultural Institute,’' to the rights, privileges, and duties 
stated above. 

The board is organized as follows: 

(a) Members .—Not less than 9 nor more than 17. Five members 
may call a meeting. Five members constitute a quorum. 

(b) Officers. —President, two vice presidents, secretary, and treas¬ 
urer. Elected at the annual meeting of the board of trustees, the 
officers “ shall hold office until their successors are elected, unless pre¬ 
viously removed in accordance with law, and shall perform the duties 
indicated by the titles of their respective offices.” 

( c ) Committees. —(1) Executive committee: The executive com¬ 
mittee, elected annually by the board, is composed of not less than 6 
nor more than 8 trustees, together with the president of the board, 
the principal of the institute, and the treasurer. 

It “ shall have the immediate supervision of the institute, and the 
care of its property, and shall superintend the execution of the plans 
and resolutions of the trustees.” It may fill vacancies temporarily in 
its own committee and in the staff of the institute and shall report its 
proceedings annually to the board. 

In executing any plans that may have been approved by the trus¬ 
tees it— 

shall not involve the corporation in an indebtedness exceeding $5,000 on any 
single transaction, nor exceeding $15,000 in the aggregate in any fiscal year, 
which amount it is authorized to borrow in the name of the corporation, pledg¬ 
ing the securities of the institution therefor; but it may expend any funds com¬ 
ing into the treasury for a specific purpose in accordance with plans already 
approved by the board for that purpose. Three members shall constitute a 
quorum. 

It has authority to call the annual or special meetings of the board, 
notices to be sent three weeks in advance. 

(2) Investment committee: The investment committee elected an¬ 
nually by the board is composed of four trustees together “ with the. 
president and treasurer of the board.” 


ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION. 


13 


The president shall be chairman, or in his absence he may 
designate a vice president to act as chairman of the committee, and 
the trustees shall name one of the members to be secretary and 
treasurer of the committee. The committee may fill any vacancies 
that may occur in its membership or offices. The committee has 
full power to make or change investments of the corporation funds 
and to execute all documents and legal papers concerning same. 

The treasurer of the committee and the treasurer of the institute 
shall have the custody of the seal of the institute, and the signature 
of either shall be a sufficient receipt for property or funds for the 
corporation. 

The signature of any two members of the committee shall constitute a suf¬ 
ficient signature against any funds, which funds shall be deposited to the 
credit of the committee in such depositary as they may select. 

The securities belonging to the institute shall be deposited In the vaults 
of some well-known and secure safe deposit comppany in the City of New 
York, access to which shall be had by any two members of the committee 
together, or with some trust company in the City of New York having a capital 
and surplus of not less than two million dollars, subject to an agreement 
providing for access and assuring the responsibility of the trust company for 
the safe care and return of the securities .and the collection of coupons as 
they shall mature. 

(3) Standing committee: The standing committee, appointed 
annually by the president of the board, is composed of five trustees 
who shall visit and report yearly or oftener as they think best on 
the state of the institution. This committee has not been ap¬ 
pointed for several years. 


THE PRINCIPAL. 

The principal is the active, executive head of the institute and 
is elected by the board to serve permanently, subject to removal by 
a two-thirds vote of a quorum of that body. He has always been 
elected a trustee by the board and serves on its executive committee. 

As principal, as well as chairman of the administrative board and 
faculty, he is in close touch with all departments of the institute 
and keeps the executive committee and board informed of its needs 
and condition. 

THE ADMINISTRATIVE BOARD. 

The administrative board of 18 members is described in by-law 
6 as follows: 

There shall be an administrative board of the institute, consisting of the 
principal, the vice principal, the lady principal, the commandant, the treasurer, 
the secretary, the chaplain, the director of the normal school, the director of 
the agricultural school, the director of the trade school, the director of the 
business school, the director of the home economics school, the director of 
extension work, the field secretary, and the publication secretary, together 


14 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


with such other officers and teachers as shall be elected by the board to its 
membership and approved by the trustees. The administrative board shall 
be directly responsible for the general conduct of the institute, and it shall 
keep a record of its proceedings subject to the inspection of the trustees. 

The administrative board is the chief legislative group of the 
institute. Its members meet every Tuesday morning and discuss 
and pass on matters dealing with students, individually or collec¬ 
tively, and with institute policies. 

While matters of distinctly school policy are settled by the 
faculties of the five separate schools, final decisions in discipline, 
etc., and larger matters affecting two or more schools, or the insti¬ 
tute as a whole, are brought before the administrative board. 

THE FACULTY. 

The faculty of 117 members is thus described by by-law 6: 

The faculty of the institute shall consist of the members of the adminis¬ 
trative board, together with such heads of departments, teachers, and other 
workers as shall be chosen by the administrative board. The faculty shall 
consider questions of general interest in the affairs of the institute, particularly 
those relating to the courses of study, leaving to the administrative board 
final decision in matters of large importance. 

Meeting once a month, the faculty is as yet a deliberative and con¬ 
sultative rather than a legislative group. 

THE BUSINESS COMMITTEE. 

The business committee, a permanent committee established by 
the principal in 1903 as an executive committee tp relieve the ad¬ 
ministrative board of purely business and physical maintenance 
matters, has both legislative and executive functions, subject, how¬ 
ever, in larger matters to the approval of the administrative board 
or the trustees, as the case may be. It meets on Mondays and Fri¬ 
days and has four members, the treasurer, who is the chairman, the 
superintendent of roads and grounds, the superintendent of con¬ 
struction, and the secretary. 

ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTE. 

The duties of the administrative officers of the institute, all of 
whom, except the chaplain emeritus and superintendent of construc¬ 
tion, are members of the administrative board, are as follows: 

The principal, the executive head of the institute, is directly 
responsible for its administration to the board of trustees. He is 
chairman of the administrative board and faculty and represents 
the institute before the public. As a trustee himself and as a member 
of the executive committee, the principal is the main connection 
between the board of trustees and the institute, 


ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION. 


15 


The vice principal is the director of the summer school, editor of 
the catalogue and in charge of the application office, scholarship 
bureau, and lectures and entertainments. He also coordinates the 
work and relations of the five schools and is active in preparing the 
programs for anniversary and commencement. 

The lady principal is directly responsible for the girls. She has 
charge of their dormitories and hospital, as well as the students’ 
dining rooms and kitchen, the diet kitchen, and laundry; also of 
the teachers’ home, teachers’ kitchen, Holly Tree Inn kitchen, in¬ 
dustrial sewing room, and much of the entertainment of school 
guests. 

The commandant is directly responsible for the boys and their 
discipline, dormitories, hospital, and brass band. The general duty 
squad and guards report to him, and he is chief of the fire depart¬ 
ment. 

The treasurer is responsible for the receipt and disbursement of 
all funds of the institute, the investment committee, however, hav¬ 
ing charge of the investment of funds. As chairman of the busi¬ 
ness committee, the treasurer is business manager of the institute 
and as member of the executive committee has direct connection 
with the board of trustees. 

The Holly Tree Inn, restaurant, post office, store, commissary, 
meat market, power plant, electrical, dental, and optical departments 
are under his immediate control. 

The secretary of the board, of trustees is also secretary of the ad¬ 
ministrative board, the faculty, and the business committee and 
has charge of their minutes and the records of the institute. He is 
responsible for the general institute mail. 

The chaplain is in charge of the religious work of the institute. 
He preaches on Sundays, is superintendent of the Sunday school 
and teaches Bible classes, besides having general oversight of the 
Young Men’s Christian Association, Young Women’s Christian 
Association, missionary work, and daily prayers. 

The director of the normal school is also in charge of the acad¬ 
emy, Whittier and Shelibanks schools. The courses in manual 
training, applied arts, music, and physical training are also in his 
jurisdiction. 

In addition to the educational duties connected with his school, 
the director of the agricultural school is actively engaged in the 
management of Whipple farm, Shelibanks farm, the creamery, horti¬ 
culture department, and the greenhouses. He also promotes farmers’ 
conferences and agricultural extension work. 

Besides his school duties, the director of the trade school, like the 
director of the agricultural school, is active in the general oversight 


16 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

of the productive side of the 11 trades which are taught in the trade 
school. 

Both the agricultural and trade schools are productive as well as 
educational. 

The directors of the business school and the home economics 
school are at present closely confined to the organization and edu¬ 
cational matters of their comparatively new schools. 

The director of extension work visits personally and arranges for 
members of the institute staff to visit schools and Hampton grad¬ 
uates in the field. He studies the home conditions of the Hampton 
students as well as the needs and conditions of the communities and 
schools to which its graduates will go. His main objects are to find 
out how the institute may best meet the needs in the field and to 
improve the quality of its student body. 

The field secretary arranges meetings and campaigns, not only to 
raise funds for Hampton, but even more specifically to arouse in¬ 
terest in the North for the institute and the whole negro question. 

The publication secretary is in close touch with over 800 of the 
best papers of the country, both North and South. He represents the 
institute at many meetings and conferences and spreads the story of 
Hampton and the negro throughout the whole nation. 

These three officers, the director of extension work, the field sec¬ 
retary, and the publication secretary, mutually aid each other in 
the interpretation of Hampton Institute to the press and to the 
people both North and South. 

The instructor of military science, who commands the junior unit 
of the Beserve Officers’ Training Corps at Hampton Institute, is 
also a member of the administrative board and faculty. 

The superintendent of roads and grounds has charge of the mads 
and lawns and does all grading on the place. He is a member of the 
administrative board, the faculty, and the business committee. 

The institute physician looks after the health of the students 
and is in charge of the boys’ and girls’ hospitals. He is a member 
of the administrative board and the faculty. 

The superintendent of construction has general oversight of all 
buildings on the place and orders all necessary repairs. He also 
draws the plans for minor additions and improvements to institute 
buildings and represents the architects and business committee in 
supervising the construction of new buildings. He is* a member of 
the faculty and the business committee. 

SEMI-INDEPENDENT DEPARTMENTS. 

The publication and photographic departments, the negro and 
Indian record offices, the library, and the museum do not come im- 


FINANCIAL HISTORY. 


17 


mediately under the supervision of any of the above main divisions 
of the institute. Though more or less under the administrative board 
and business committee they report to the principal. 


STANDING COMMITTEES. 


Standing committees are appointed at the beginning of each school 
year to carry out the details of administration. With very few ex¬ 
ceptions they are composed of members of the administrative board 
and the faculty; and the chairmen of the committees, excepting 
the church, exhibits, public programs, and publications, are mem¬ 
bers of the administrative board. 

The standing committees are as follows: 


Anniversary and commencement. 
Athletic. 

Business. 

Campaign. 

Church (board of deacons). 
Entertainments and holidays. 
Exhibits. 

Extension advisory committee. 
Library. 

Missionary work. 


Ogden Hall. 

Public programs. 

Publications. 

R. O. T. C. 

Scholarships. 

The “Student.” 

Summer school social committee. 
Sunday school. 

Y. M. C. A. advisory committee. 

Y. W. C. A. advisory committee. 


SUMMARY OF ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION. 

In brief, the title and ultimate authority of Hampton Institute is 
vested in the board of trustees. 

The administrative board is its legislative body, whose members, 
including the administrative officers and directors of the schools, 
carry on the affairs of the institute under the principal, who, as 
chairman of both 'the administrative board and the faculty, and as 
member of the board of trustees, is the executive head of the insti¬ 
tute. The principal is the institute’s spokesman before the board of 
trustees and represents the institute to the general public. 

The faculty is the large deliberative body of the institute. 

The executive and investment committee look after details for the 
board of trustees, while the 20 standing committees do a similar 
work for the institute. 


FINANCIAL HISTORY. 

Frank K. Rogers, 

Treasurer, Hampton Institute. 

The buildings which belong to Hampton Institute number about 
140, including 65 dwellings used by officers and teachers. The more 
important buildings are mainly of brick, and for some of the earlier 



18 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


and larger ones the bricks were made on the place by the students. 
Many of the buildings were erected by student labor. The policy 
of the school at present is to continue this process and to undertake 
as far as possible all repairs of brickwork, plastering, steamfitting, 
plumbing, and other work by student labor. 

The land, about 1,000 acres in addition to the campus, includes 
two farms, the largest of which is Shellbanks, 3^ miles distant, 
-which comprises 800 acres used as a dairy farm. The smaller, 
Whipple farm, is adjacent to the campus and is used for demonstra¬ 
tion purposes in connection with the agricultural school, and its 
products are used by the institute. 

The fixed equipment includes the water mains, sewer lines, salt¬ 
water hydrant system, fire engines, fire pumps, boilers, steam lines, 
etc. The school operates its own electric light and power plant 
and ice plant. 

The buildings of the institute comprise dormitories for boys and 
girls, a commodious library, an auditorium seating 2,500 people, a 
church, general administration building, hotel, club house for teach¬ 
ers, gymnasium, academy and normal school, agricultural and home 
economics schools (one building), and trade school. 

The endowment is largely made up of legacies, it having been the 
policy from the early days of the school to add even unrestricted 
bequests to this permanent fund. These gifts no doubt represent the 
capitalization in many cases of regular annual gifts made during the 
lifetime of the donors. 

Increase of Hampton Institute endowment by years. —1872-1876, 
$52,369; 1880, $2,020; 1890, $11,736; 1900, $163,189; 1910, $469,970; 
1918-1920, $536,541; total, 1872-1920, $3,879,695. 

Income and expenditure for general purposes,} 


Year. 

General 

donations. 

Annual 

scholarships. 

Endowment 

income. 

Land- 

grant 

Morrill- 

Nelson 

funds. 

Total 

income. 

Total ex¬ 
penditure. 

1868-1871. 

$136,419.85 
16,379. 43 
67,025.66 
59,537. 52 
105,343. 36 
140,664.82 




$136,419. 85 
41,932.96 
113,571.33 
148,129. 77 
251,594. 93 
437,874.97 

$61,283.28 
35,125.70 
87,439.69 
154,070.06 
225,566. 56 
465,696.43 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1910. 

1920. 

Total for all 
years from 
1868-1920. 

$16,160. 25 
27,566. 61 
34,593. 37 
35,980.29 
47,264.22 

$4,228.60 
8,649. 70 
35,336. 19 
86,608.59 
222,949. 91 

$5,164.68 
10,329.36 

18.662.69 

23.662.69 
26,996.02 

3,184,675.23 

1,474,176. 23 

2,472,039.25 

852,391.41 

7,983,282.12 

7,708,541.56 


1 For the purpose of brevity yearly data are omitted, with the exception of the several 
decade years. 




















FINANCIAL HISTORY, 


19 


Cost of Hampton Institute plant. 


Year. 

Buildings. 

Land and 
land im¬ 
prove¬ 
ments. 

Fixed 

equipment. 

Total. 

1869-187P. 

$56,620 
152, 839 
300,170 
192,101 
448, 288 
650, 433 
55, 096 

$19,000 
21,607 
9,708 
23,950 
42,504 
85, 558 
9,548 


$75,620 
177,810 
370,148 
272,987 
610,894 
893,637 
71,025 

1872-1880. 

$3,363 
60,270 
56,936 
119,103 
157,645 
6,381 

1881-1890. 

1891-1900. 

1901-1910. 

1911-1920. 

1921. 

Total, 1869-1921. 

1,855,547 

211,875 

403,698 

2,471,120 


1 Early years, 1868-1871, incomplete. 


Gifts for Hampton Institute plant. 


Year. 

Buildings. 

Land. 

Fixed 
equipment 
and un¬ 
restricted. 

Total. 

1868-1873 i. 


$28, 500 
6,000 
8,064 
16,650 


$28,500 
96,523 
290,331 
257,931 
384, 523 
688,929 
45,599 

1874-1880. 

$90, 523 
234, 525 
238,133 
289,130 
547, 269 
30,599 


1881-1890. 

$47, 742 
3,147 
95,383 
138,660 
15,000 

1891-1900. 

1901-1910. 

1911-1920. 

3,000 

1921. 

Total, 1868-1921. 


1,430,179 

62,214 

299,942 

2 1,792,336 


1 Early years, 1868-1873, incomplete. 

2 Deficiency of income for permanent improvements and land has been provided from excess of income. 


Summary of Hampton Institute endowment funds, June 30, 1921. 


General endowment_$3, 242, 563 

Perman ent scholarship 

fund_ 339, 259 

Carl Schurz endowment 

fund_ 15, 000 

Andrew memorial endow¬ 
ment fund_ 50, 000 

Bishop McVicker fund_ 11,220 

Morris K. Jesup fund_ 25, 000 

Russell Sage fund_ 25, 000 

Anonymous (H. B. T. 

fund)_ 15,100 

Phelps-Stokes fund_ 2, 000 

Charles D. Presho fund_ 8,900 

Library endowment fund- 1, 200 

Julia P. Marquand fund- 11,000 

Robert R. Proudfit fund_ 25 

George Law fund_ 5, 000 

J. S. W. fund_ 1,000 


Eli Whitney Blake museum 

endowment fund_ $5,000 

Edna Dow Cheney fund_ 6, 685 

Isaphene Hillhouse fund- 5, 000 

Alexander Moss White 

fund_ 50, 000 

William W. Smith fund_ 5, 000 

Moses Kimball fund_ 5, 000 

Harriet Rose Lee fund_ 400 

Plollis B. Frissell memorial 

fund_ 1, 250 

Josephine E. Richards book 

fund_ 625 

Ogden Hall maintenance 

fund_ 25, 000 

Club house endowment 

fund_ 23, 466 


Total_ 

Retirement fund- 


) 


3, 879, 695 
37, 023 





























































20 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

RECORD OFFICE. 


Myrtilla J. Sherman, 

In Charge of Record Office, Hampton Institute.. 

Every student on entering Hampton is given a personal interview 
in which is obtained a sketch of his life from his birth until his 
arrival at the school. In this sketch is included a description of his 
home and family. Even the names, ages, education, location, and 
occupation of his brothers and sisters are called for. This material 
is later put upon one side of an 8 by 10 inch biography card. 

When a student leaves Hampton we have on the one card the 
story of his life from his birth until his departure. 

On entrance each student’s photograph is taken and mounted on 
the left side of the Hampton record. If he graduates, his class 
picture is mounted at the right. Most striking is the development 
indicated by the contrasting photographs as well as by the yearly 
record columns. 

A CHRISTMAS LETTER WAS SENT TO 5,000 HAMPTONIANS. 

When a student leaves, whether as a graduate or not, we try to 
keep in touch with him at least once a year. We send a Christmas 
letter to every one whose address we have. If we do not know the 
present location of anyone, we send the letter to his home to be 
forwarded. 

The letter aims to be as personal as is possible, considering the 
fact that it is to be read by thousands of men and women. 

With the Christmas letter we send an inquiry sheet with the 
earnest request that everyone who receives the questionnaire return 
. it promptly with the information that the questionnaire calls for. 
While all Hamptonians do not see the necessity of filling out that 
particular paper, yet it is the chief source of our knowledge as to 
what our former students are doing. Some Hampton men and 
women write letters instead; others call; while many do not answer 
every year. 

We often find that these seeming delinquents are just as loyal to 
Hampton and appreciate the letter as much as do those who are more 
regular in responding. 

Including over 2,000 graduates, we have sent out about 10,000 
negro students. Last December the Christmas letter went to more 
than 5,000 of these men and women. Of more than 1,600 living 
graduates, there are at present only 53 on our “ lost list.” 

ALL STUDENTS’ RECORDS CLOSELY FOLLOWED. 

In our address files, one for graduates and the other for former 
students, is recorded all the information that comes to us, whether 


RECORD OFFICE. 


21 


directly or indirectly. Every graduate has a card on which is 
entered each year any information received directly from him —his 
residence address, his temporary or business address, if any,- his 
occupation, the year, and above it B, L, or C, according to whether 
he has filled out his inquiry sheet or blank, has written a letter, or has 
called. 

When a graduate leaves, a blue slip is made, which gives his full 
home address and the name and address of his parent or guardian. 
This slip is kept in front of his card until he fills out an inquiry 
sheet. It is then put in another file from which it can be gotten 
later on if necessary. 

Much information about our graduates is obtained through others. 
Such information is put upon a white slip, with date and source of 
information, and kept in front of the card until we hear from the 
person himself. The white slip is then withdrawn and put in the 
weeded-out file. 

The same system is pursued in the case of former students, except 
that no card is made until we hear directly from the individual. 

PRESENT LOCATION OF STUDENTS FOLLOWED. 

Along with and corresponding to the names in the address files, 
we have over 5,000 small location cards, arranged according to States, 
with special subdivisions in the case of large towns and cities. The 
Virginia cards are also subdivided according to counties. 

We have also a similar location file for every student in school, 
and another similar file for all those who have left Hampton. It 
differs from the one already described in this respect: The cards are 
filed according to the places from which the students entered Hamp¬ 
ton and not according to their location at latest accounts. 

INSTITUTE HELP TO GRADUATES AND FORMER STUDENTS. 

It is the duty of the record office to respond to all requests for 
workers and if possible to recommend suitable persons for the posi¬ 
tions offered. It is also its duty to answer all inquiries concerning 
our former students, and to furnish their school record, if they de¬ 
sire to enter other institutions or to secure certificates as teachers. 

In the case of Indian students the system which has already been 
described is in general followed. Owing to circumstances, it differs 
in a few minor respects. 

Such in outline is the work of the record office. I would not, how¬ 
ever, close this brief statement without mentioning the hundreds of 
letters from our Hampton men and women, which it is such a privi¬ 
lege to receive and a pleasure to answer, and also the frequent calls 
from those who come to see us, sometimes after an absence of many 
years. 


22 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


Enrollment of Negroes and Indians , 1869-1922. 


Year. 

Negroes. 

Indians. 

Total. 

Year. 

Negroes. 

Indians. 

Total. 

1809 

i 60 


i 66 

1900. 

531 

124 

655 

1870 

1 75 


i 75 

1910. 

780 

74 

854 

1878 

308 

15 

323 

1920. 

870 

21 

891 

1879 

254 

66 

320 

1921. 

812 

23 

835 

1880 

286 

68 

354 

1922. 

844 

29 

863 

1890. 

559 

133 

692 






1 Unofficial figure. 


Negro and Indian graduates. 


Year 

Negro. 

Indian. 

Total. 

Year. 

Negro. 

Indian. 

Total. 

1871 

19 


19 

1920. 

62 

1 

63 

1880 

38 


38 

1921. 

83 

1 

84 

1881 

41 


41 

Allowed later. 

2 

0 

2 

1882. 

57 

3 

60 





1890. 

42 

2 

44 

Total, 1871- 




1900 . 

38 

2 

40 

1921, etc. 

2,135 

155 

2,290 

1910. 

50 

3 

59 






In addition to a more lengthy Christmas letter Miss Sherman sends 
the following letter to the men and women graduates. 

LETTER T'0 THE MEN. 2 


My Dear Friend : It was a great pleasure to hear from so many of our 
Hampton men last year, and yet the proportion of replies was not so great as 
I wish it might have been. Only 418 of the 875 graduate men to whom the 
Christmas letter was sent responded by returning the inquiry sheet. Some prob¬ 
ably said, “ I have nothing new to tell, for I am just where I was last year 
and doing the same work.” How was I to know that this was true, unless they 
told me so? Others said, “ Miss Sherman knows where I am, and what is the 
need of sending any report?” Please do not forget that I do not myself do the 
work of recording, and that if you send the questionnaire, you save time and 
labor for me. Many of those now in other institutions perhaps said, “ I am not 
yet settled. I will wait until I have finished my preparation for life.” We 
here like to follow our graduates as they continue their studies elsewhere. 

The school has issued trade certificates to 687 negro students. Many others 
have completed trade courses here. I very much wish that I might hear from 
every Hampton tradesman this year, whether he is following the particular 
trade he learned here, or whether he is engaged in some other work. I was 
recently asked to furnish a list of Hampton contractors. It would have been 
an easy task had each contractor sent me his inquiry sheet last year. 

Please do not fail to notify me at once of any change in your address. Again 
let me say that while letters are always most welcome, the inquiry sheet is 
indispensable in our work. 

It would help our office very greatly if, when we notify anyone that we have 
recommended him for some work, he would promptly let us know whether he 
has heard from the position, and if so, whether he has accepted. 

Trusting that I may hear from you, and that thus you will do your part 
toward making the record of our graduate men 100 per cent, I am, 

Very cordially yours, 


Hampton Institute, 

December 1, 1921. 


M. J. Sherman. 


2 A similar letter, with the necessary verbal changes, is sent to the women. 































































RECORD OFFICE. 


23 


INQUIRY SHEET. 

1921-1922. 

1. Your name in full? (Please spell out each word of it.)_ 

2. When were you graduated from Hampton?_ 

3. Your present home address?_ 

4. Your business address, if any, or if you are not at home, your temporary 

address for the winter of 1921-1922 f _ 

5. If you have married, your wife’s full name?_ 

Was she ever a regular student at Hampton?_ Is she living?_ 

"Note.— As many will this year for the first time send us their reports and as others 

have married since we last heard from them, it is necessary again to ask the above 
questions. Although you may repeat what you have already told us we hope that, for 

the sake of uniformity in the reports, you will kindly answer the above questions. 

6. How many years have you already taught?__ 

7. If a teacher now, where are you teaching?_ 

Are you employed in a private or a State institution, or in a public graded, high, 

or county training school?_ 

If so, what position do you hold?_ 

If not in a school, but doing work along educational lines, what is that work? 

8. If an assistant teacher, what grade do you teach?- 

How many assistants are employed in your school?- 

How many pupils attend your school? - 

If an assistant, how many pupils have you yourself on roll?- 

9. When did your work begin this year?--- When will it 

close?_ & -- 

Where did you spend last vacation?-- What doing?- 

10. Your leading occupation at the present time?- 

What other occupation, if any, do you combine with it?- 

11. If following a trade, are you an instructor, a contractor, or a journey¬ 
man ?_ 

12. If continuing your studies, where are you a student?- 

What course are you taking?- 

13. What are you doing in addition to your regular employment to help your 

community?- 

Note. —If on a salary, what amount (if you are willing to tell) do you 


receive?_ For how many months in the year do you re¬ 
ceive it?_ What salary would you consider in order to make a 

change?- 


Date of filling out the above—:-- 

If you have attended any other institution since leaving Hampton, what 

was it?- 

How long were you there?_ In what year were you 

graduated from that institution?- 


































24 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


FORMER HAMPTON STUDENTS. 

If you know any former Hampton students who do not receive the Christmas 
letter or who have uhanged their addresses, please tell me about them below. 

Name___— 

Address_—-■--—- 

Occupation------ 

Name---—-- 

Address-----—-- 

Occupation------ 


THE ACADEMY AND NORMAL SCHOOL. 

Henry J. Doerman, 

Director, Academy and Normal School, Hampton Institute. 

In 1869 the academic department of Hampton Institute was a 
school of approximately junior - high-school grade. From that 
nucleus has grown the academy and the normal school of the present 
day. 

The academy to-day is a standard secondary school whose aim is 
(1) to prepare students for the agricultural school, business school, 
home economics school, and normal school in the institute, or for 
collegiate schools elsewhere, and (2) to give instruction in academic 
subjects to students in the trade school. 

- An academic diploma is granted upon the satisfactory comple¬ 
tion of the required work in the academy, and the recipient is ad¬ 
mitted without examination to the advanced course of his choice. 

The normal school to-day is a school of college grade. It offers 
(1) a four-year course for the training of supervisors and principals 
(for the completion with credit of this course the degree “ B. A. in 
education ” will be granted) ; (2) special courses for the training of 
high-scliool teachers; and (3) special courses for the training of 
elementary-school teachers. 

In the pages that follow, the steps through which this evolu¬ 
tion has progressed are outlined. 

Outstanding successes, as well as failures, have been noted, to¬ 
gether with the reasons for significant changes. 

The development of the academy and normal school will be 
treated in four sections: (1) Typical courses of study.; (2) entrance 
requirements; (3) correlations between departments; and (4) 
teacher training. 










THE ACADEMY AND NORMAL SCHOOL. 


25 


TYPICAL COURSES OF STUDY. 


COURSES OF STUDY IN 1870. 

Jumor class. 

Mathematics: Arithmetic from long division to percentage. 

Language: Spelling, reading, grammar, sentence making. 

Natural science: Geography with map drawing; natural history. 

Middle class. 

Mathematics : Arithmetic completed ; bookkeeping. 

Language: Spelling, reading; English grammar, with analysis of sentences. 
Natural science: Physical geography; natural philosophy; outlines of as¬ 
tronomy. 

History: History of the United States. 

Senior class. 

Mathematics.: Algebra; geometry. 

Language: Spelling; reading; rhetoric; composition. 

Natural science: Physiology; botany. 

History: Universal history; history of England in connection with readings 
from English writers; science of civil government; and moral science. 

In addition to the above course, instruction was given in mental arithmetic 
and penmanship, practical instruction in agriculture, in housework and in 
household industries, and drill in teaching; a course of lectures every winter 
upon the application of science to agriculture; and daily inspection of rooms. 

NORMAL SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY IN 1921-22. 

(The figures indicate the number of 50-minute periods per week.) 


■First year. Periods. 

Rhetoric_ 

Principles of education and educational psychology 

Grade methods_-_ 

Methods in physical education (half year)___ 3 

School hygiene (half year)_:_ 2 

Two electives_ 10 


The two electives may be selected, subject to the approval of the director, 
from the other courses which the institute offers. 


Second year. 

Teaching in the Whittier training school (half year). 

Half year. 

Rural sociology- 

Educational tests and standards- 

History of education since 1850- 

One elective_x- 

Electives. 

Children’s literature and story-telling- 

Personal hygiene--- 

Library methods- 

Penmanship and drawing- 

Principles of vocational guidance- 

Military science and drill for men throughout the course. 


5 

5 

5 

5 


Cl Cl W 

















26 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE 


ACADEMY COURSE OF STUDY IN 192 2-1923. 1 
FIRST YEAR. 


Studies. 

Periods. 

Units. 

Studies. 

Periods. 

Units. 

English e n( l literature 

6 

1 

Manual training (men). 

6 


General m 3 thematies 

5 

l 

Physical training. 

2 


.9r*j p.ripp 

6 

1 

Singing. 

2 

\ 

Home ernnnmi r-s ( wornr,n ) 

8 

1 

Art. 

2 

X. 








i Military drill throughout the course, three hours per week. 


SECOND YEAR. 


Studies. 


English and literature.... 

Bible. 

Home economics (women) 

Applied art (women). 

Manual training (men) 

Physical training. 

Singing. 


Periods. 

Units. 

Studies. 

Periods. 

Units. 

6 

3 

1 

i 

f 

i 

4 

3 

Electives, not to exceed 2 units: 1 
Agriculture. 

4 

i 

1 

6 

Algebra.-.. 

5 

2 

6 

Applied business mathe¬ 
matics. 

5 

1 

2 

| 

Biologv. 

6 

1 

2 

i 

History to 1700. 

5 

1 







1 Eighteen units are required for a diploma. Students must take either chemistry or physics and two 
of the "following: History to year 1700; history from 1700; economic geography; sociology. (Students plan¬ 
ning to take specific advanced courses at Hampton may substitute other electives with the consent of the 
director of the"academy.) 


THIRD YEAR. 


Studies. 

Periods. 

Units. 

Studies. 

Periods. 

Units. 

English and literature. 

5 

1 

Electives, not to exceed 3| 



Physical training. 

7 

1 

units —Continued. 



Electives,not toexceed 3£ units: 1 

2 

1 

4 

Household arts I. 

4 

£ 

Advanced drawing. 



Manual arts I. 

4 

i 

Bookkeeping I. 

2 

\ 

Music appreciation. 

2 


Chemistry. 

5 

1 

Public speaking I. 

2 

2 

A 

Economic geography. 

7 

1 

Shorthand I.... 

5 

2 

1 

French I. 

5 

1 

Spanish I. 

5 

l 

Geometry. 

5 

1 

Typewriting I. 

5 

i 

History from year 1700. 

5 

1 

Any second-year elective. 


2 


1 Eighteen units are required for a diploma. Students must take either chemistry or physics and two 
of the following: History to year 1700; history from 1700; economic geography; sociology. (Students plan 
ning to take specific advanced courses at Hampton may substitute other electives with the consent of the 
director of the academy.) 


FOURTH YEAR. 


Studies. 

Periods. 

Units. 

Studies. 

Periods. 

Units. 

History of English literature. 

7 

1 

Electives, not to exceed 2£ 



American history. 

5 

1 

units—Continued. 



Phvsical training. 

3 

\ 

Physics. 

7 


Electives,not toexceed 2£ units: 1 


Public speaking II. 

2 

£ 

Art appreciation. 

2 

X 

Shorthand II. 

5 

1 

Bookkeeping II. 

5 

\ 2 

Sociology. 

5 

1 

French II.... 

5 

1 

Spanishll... 

5 

1 

Household arts II. 

4 

X. 

Typewriting II 

5 

i 

Manual arts II. 

4 

1 

Any third (but not second) year 


2 

Mathematics. 

5 

1 

elective. 




1 Eighteen units are required for a diploma. Students must take either chemistry or physics and two 
of the following: History to year 1700; history from 1700; economic geography; sociology. (Students plan¬ 
ning to take specific advanced courses at Hampton may substitute other electives with the consent of the 
director of the academy.) 



































































































THE ACADEMY AND NORMAL SCHOOL. 


27 


For entrance to the advanced schools at Hampton students are advised to 
make these choices of electives: 

Agricultural school—Mathematics and science. 

Business school—Applied business mathematics, bookkeeping, economic 
geography, shorthand, and typewriting. 

Home-economics school—Biology, chemistry, and household arts. 

Normal school—Mathematics, history, and social sciences. 

COURSES OF STUDY OFFERED IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL IN 1922-1923, 

I. Collegiate Normal Course—a standard college course of 144 weeks for 
the training of supervisors and principals. (May be completed in three 
school years of 48 weeks each or in four school years of 3G weeks each.) For 
the completion of 180 credit hours in this course the degree “ B. A. in Educa¬ 
tion ” will be given. 

A “credit hour” is satisfactory work in one lecture or recitation period (or 
two laboratory periods) of 55 minutes per week for a 12-week quarter. 

II. —High-School Teachers’ Course—a two-year course in college subjects for 
the training of high-school teachers. For the completion of 90 credit hours 
the normal school diploma and subject certificates for high-school teaching will 
be awarded. 

Subject certificates will be issued for every subject in which the student 
presents 18 or more credit hours. This is done in order to adhere to the 
general principle that high-school teachers shall have at least two years of 
training above the high school in the subject in which they are instructing. 

III. Professional Normal Course—a two-year course for the training of 
elementary-school teachers, consisting of prescribed and elective courses. For 
the completion with credit of the prescribed courses and a sufficient number 
of electives to bring the total credits earned up to 90, the normal school 
diploma and the normal professional State certificate will be given. 

IV. Elementary Normal Course—a prescribed one-year course for the train¬ 
ing of elementary-school teachers as follows: 

English composition, 3 hours per week; 

Child study, 3 hours per week; 

Grade methods, 6 hours per week; 

Physical training methods, 3 hours per week; 

Hygiene, 2 hours per week; 

Agriculture for teachers, 4 hours per week; and Practice-teaching, 30 
hours per week for 12 weeks. 

For the completion with credit of this course an elementary State certificate 
will be given. By attendance upon the three summer quarters of 12 weeks 
each, or one school year of 3G weeks, the graduate of the elementary normal 
course will be granted the normal school diploma and the normal professional 
certificate. 

ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 

In 1869 the entrance requirements were— 

sound health, good character, age not less than 14 nor over 25, ability to read 
well and write intelligibly; knowledge of arithmetic through long division; 
intention to remain through the whole course of three years, and to become a 
teacher. 

47096°—23-3 




28 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


Ten years later tlie entrance requirements for the junior class 
demanded ability to read and write and to pass a satisfactory ex¬ 
amination in short and long division. 

That the founder of Hampton hoped to raise entrance require¬ 
ments seems likely, since in liis report of 1879-80 General Armstrong 
says: 

It lias been found impossible to raise the standard of admission. Ten years 
ago over half of our students were from schools maintained by northern 
charity, whose nine months’ sessions, good outfit, and skillful teachers fitted 
a fine class of candidates for the junior class. The State schools, which have 
taken their place, have, except in the cities, but three to six months’ sessions, 
poor apparatus, and usually inferior teaching. 

The school catalogue in 1879 makes this announcement: u Of those 
who fail to come up to the requirements of the junior class, a limited 
number will be allowed to enter a preparatory class.” The prepara¬ 
tory class has been the device used by the institute since that time 
to insure proper training of those entering the regular first-year 
course. It was not long after 1879 when the preparatory depart¬ 
ment became the feeder for the regular courses. Until quite recently 
a majority of the number of new students entering the institute have 
gone into preparatory classes. 

In 1895 the entrance requirements in arithmetic were increased to 
include common and decimal fractions. By 1899 the entrance re¬ 
quirements had been increased to the following: 

Ability to read well in tbe third reader; to write in a fair hand a correct 
paragraph or letter in simple English, properly capitalized, punctuated, and 
spelled; to make good figures; and to pass a satisfactory examination, both 
in mental and written work, in the first four rules in arithmetic, in United 
States money, liquid, dry, and long measure, avoirdupois weight, and common 
and decimal^ fractions. 

TOOK TEACHING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS A HANDICAP. 

With possibly a slightly higher requirement in reading ability, 
the standard of admission to the preparatory class remains the same 
to-day. It will be noted, however, that the entrance requirements to 
the first year have advanced from fourth-grade ability to completion 
of the eighth grade. 

The most potent reason for the failure to increase entrance stand¬ 
ards is the inferiority of teaching in the public schools, particularly 
in the rural South, and it is from this section that the institute still 
prefers to draw its student material. 

While the institute is doing in 1922 grades of work which it was 
long ago hoped would be done by the public school, the policy of 
the school is not in conflict with the aspirations of negroes for higher 
grades in their local public schools. Candidates must have com- 


THE ACADEMY AND NORMAL SCHOOL. 


29 


pleted the highest grade in the local school before applying for ad¬ 
mission to Hampton. 

Since 1919 the regular entrance examinations in arithmetic, 
English, geography, and physiology have been supplemented by 
standard group intelligence tests. The results of these tests, studied 
over a three-year period, leave no doubt as to their value as an aid in 
determining the students of exceptional promise as well as those of 
inferior ability who must be eliminated. 

In common with all schools enrolling students from public schools, 
Hampton has had to face the problem created by the lack of stand¬ 
ards in the so-called graded schools. An eighth grade in one locality 
may in reality be equivalent to a good fifth grade. More frequently, 
however, it is the work of the high-school grades which gives the 
most trouble. 

It is desired to encourage maximum preparation in the home com¬ 
munity. The corollary to that policy is that the work done in the 
local schools must be credited. How to do this and at the same time 
keep up the standards of the school has been a difficult problem. In 
this connection intelligence tests have been helpful. 

GROUP INTELLIGENCE EXAMINATION USED. 

All candidates for -entrance are first given a group intelligence 
examination. If the candidate equals or exceeds the norm set for 
students of his grade, he is given hour for hour credit for all sec¬ 
ondary work he has previously had. If the candidate falls below 
the norm of his class, he must pass entrance examinations in English 
and arithmetic before he is admitted to any class in the institute. 
This policy appears the most satisfactory solution of the problem of 
ungraded students. 

Hampton has from the beginning made every attempt to secure 
attendance on the part of students throughout the entire school year. 
Since 1908 no one has been allowed to enter after the opening day of 
the fall term without special permission. The beneficial effect of 
this fundamental policy has been incalculable. 

STUDENTS WANTED BY GENERAL ARMSTRONG. 

The first entrance requirements stipulated that the applicant must 
be between the ages of 14 and 25. In 1892 tbe minimum age was 
raised to 16 years. That rather high minimum age was retained 
until recent years, when it was reduced to 15. The high age required 
for entrance has undoubtedly had the effect of turning away a num¬ 
ber of the brightest products of the public schools, since in effect 
it bade them stay out of school for a few years, assuming they had 
made normal progress through the grades, or go to some other 
school. 





30 


HAMPTON NORMAL, AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


The reason for the policy which prevailed for nearly 50 years is 
undoubtedly to be found in a statement of General Armstrong, taken 
from his annual report of 1892: 

I prefer to have as pupils those from 17 to 22 years of age, because it is the 
most formative period; those younger may be more plastic, but don’t “ stay 
put ” so well. There is too much putty in the early teens. Later there is 
better mental digestion, more will power; more bodily hardness, and more in¬ 
telligent, decisive, reliable choice of ends; better sticking to things and more 
staying power. 



CORRELATION BETWEEN DEPARTMENTS. 

Since foundation of the institute the academic department 3 has 
been the clearing house for all academic subjects. Students of 
trades, agriculture, business, home economics receive their instruction 
in general subjects, as opposed to vocational subjects, in this depart¬ 
ment. The department has also been the school in which teachers 
have been trained—the normal school. This dual nature is of com¬ 
paratively recent origin. 

During General Armstrong’s principalship no recognition toward 
graduation was given to anything except academic work. Manual 
work was required of all students, but it was on much the same basis 
that military drill is to-day. Standards of accomplishment in the 
vocational field were probably just as high as they have ever been, 
but diplomas were granted solely upon an academic basis. This was 
true until 1913. 


HEAD, HEART, AND HAND. 



Education at Hampton has always been considered a unity. The 
training of the head, heart, and hand was clearly the intent of the 
founder of the school. 

In his report of 1872 General Armstrong says: “ It [the academic 
department] is the leading department, to which all others are 
subsidiary.” Just what the relative emphasis is between academic 
and vocational, or, in Hampton terms, between head training and 
hand training, is a difficult question to answer. 

During the first 25 years of the school’s existence, perhaps un¬ 
consciously, the emphasis was head, heart, hand. 

During the next 25 years, perhaps equally unconsciously at first, 
the emphasis was hand, heart, head. 

In his report for 1904 Dr. Hollis B. Frissell says: 


After careful comparison of a system in which work in the shop is put first 
and academic studies made susidiary, and one in which academic instruction 
is put first and hand work made secondary, the whole corps of teachers 
agree that the former results in greater* gain in character, in initiative, and 
in intellectual force. 


3 The terms “ academic ” and “ normal ” were used interchangeably until 1913, when 
academic-normal was adopted. Since 1920 the department has been called “ academy.” 





THE ACADEMY AND NORMAL SCHOOL. 31 

PROBLEM OF SECURING RESPECT FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 

The tendency of those days was to give dignity and secure re¬ 
spect among the students for industrial training. In summarizing 

the changes during the first 10 years of his principalship Doctor 
Frissell says: 

There is a marked change in the attitude of students toward hand work 
of all kinds—a noticeable development of the idea of the dignity of honest and 
intelligent labor. In the early years of the school the academic student 
was the aristocrat, the work student occupying quite a different social position. 
This was partly owing to the fact that students failing to pass the entrance 
examinations A\ere put into trades, while those who passed best went into 
academic classes and prepared for teaching or after graduating for professions. 

The first step toward dignifying the trades was when it was de¬ 
cided in 1897 that no student should be allowed to take a trade un¬ 
less he succeeded in passing the entrance examinations, while, in order 
to take certain of the advanced trades, he was required in 1897 to 
pass for the middle class. No student in 1901 was granted a certifi¬ 
cate after completing his trade unless he had spent at least one 
year in the middle class. 

TEACHING PEOPLE HOW TO LIVE. 

A development affecting the character of academic work in such 
a way as to make it more practical is one of the early products of this 
new emphasis on industrial training. 

In his report of 1895 Doctor Frissell says: 

Considerable progress has been made the past year toward unifying and 
correlating the work of the school. We have varied material to deal with and 
the school is attempting a great deal. We are trying to teach people how to 
live; and the education in the schoolroom as well as the shop has very difinite 
ends. It must have definite relation with the daily life of the student. 

The attempt has been made to connect the study of mathematics with the 
problems of the sawmill and the industrial rooms. Instead of taking up prob¬ 
lems such as have no possible bearing upon the life of the students, such as 
they have to meet in their work are brought into the class. Bills of lumber 
to be gotten out in the sawmill, the dimensions of rooms which the students are 
building, the amount of cloth needed for garments which the boys and girls 
are making, these are the questions which are taken up in our arithmetic classes. 
In mathematics, as in all other departments of the school, more object teaching 
has been done; very valuable school material for the purpose is being manu¬ 
factured by the students in their shops. 

I should be glad if next, in accordance with the suggestion of one of the 
teachers, an arithmetic room could be fitted up with counters for buying and 
selling, money, measures, and all the appliances for making real to our Indian 
and colored students the transactions of the daily life of our people. 

One of our graduates connected with the Treasury Department has gone into 
the classroom and with insurance policies, bank bills, bills of sale, mortgages, 
and tax bills has given information that will be of much practical value to them 
and their people. 




32 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL. INSTITUTE. 


The same relation lias been further established and maintained between the 
science teaching of the classroom and the work of the farm, the hospital, the 
barn, the kitelien, and the shops. The work in chemistry has been taken up in 
connection with the school’s food supply and the needs of the plants on the 
farm. Natural philosophy has been studied a part of the time in the Hunting- 
ton Industrial Works [forerunner of the trade school]. 

That this effort to correlate academic studies and industrial work 
succeeded is witnessed by such an eminent authority as Dr. Charles 
W. Eliot, president emeritus of Harvard University, who said at 
Hampton, in 1910, after making a careful inspection of the institu¬ 
tion, that he had found here the best combination of industrial and 
academic instruction that he had thus bar seen, and he called atten¬ 
tion to the intense interest which the students showed in their work 
and their happiness in it. 

CORRELATION OF ACADEMIC AND VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION. 

If the academic department had had only the single objective of 
correlating these two types of instruction, academic and vocational, it 
is doubtful whether any educational aim could have been more satis¬ 
factorily achieved. The emphasis was placed entirely on specific 
training. 

The department, however, had another function, and a too strict 
concern over the practical application of English and arithmetic 
and science to the everyday life of the tradesman was not likely to 
broaden the horizon of the prospective teacher. 

There was no lack of emphasis on practice teaching, but the train¬ 
ing in subject matter suffered through the insistence upon the practi¬ 
cal. Not that specific training is necessarily more limited in its 
scope than general training, but when all so-called abstract arith¬ 
metic must give way to the concrete arithmetical demands of a 
carpenter or bricklayer the resulting subject matter is scarcely ex¬ 
tensive enough for the teacher of arithmetic. 

The trend to-day is in the other direction. In 1913 academic sub¬ 
jects were made a part of the trade and agricultural school courses. 
The purpose of the academic work is not primarily to reenforce the 
trade but to develop intelligent citizens who can make an intellectual 
as well as a vocational contribution to the communities to which the 
graduates go. 

STUDENTS NEED TIME TO PREPARE THEIR LESSONS. 

A valid criticism of our courses now is that they tend to be ex¬ 
tensive rather than intensive. The number of subjects required is 
so large that an inadequate amount of time is set aside for the prepa¬ 
ration of assignments. Standards of accomplishment are necessarily 


THE ACADEMY AND NORMAL SCHOOL. 


33 


lowered under such a system. To remedy effectually this situation 
the school has resolutely set itself. 

hewer subjects will be required in the academy, and students 
will not be expected to take more than four subjects that require 
outside preparation at one time. More time is to be set aside for 
study. (See academy course of study for 1322-23.) 

The daily program for tradesmen allows no time for study. With 
the exception of an hour for dinner and an hour for supper, the 
trade student has school appointments from 7.45 in the morning to 
8.30 at night. The first period in the morning and the last two 
periods at night are set aside for academic subjects. The problem 
of fatigue in evening classes is a serious one, but aside from that 
fact it is clear that with no opportunity for outside study the night 
classes can not parallel the day classes. 

For years the aim has been to give in subject for subject the same 
quality and quantity of academic training to academic and to trade 
students. It is now seen to be impossible to do this as far as quan¬ 
tity is concerned. 

The pendulum has been swinging away from the splendidly organ¬ 
ized concrete courses of study of former years. For the training of 
teachers a broadening of the courses of study was necessary^ but it 
is doubtful if for tradesmen the academic courses of those days did 
not offer the best kind of liberal training and if they did not result 
in “ a greater gain in character, in initiative, and in intellectual 
force.” 

It is interesting in this connection to note that in his survey of 
Hampton Institute, made in 1917, Dr. Paul H. Hanus, of Harvard 
University, recommends that the academic department be decen¬ 
tralized and that the academic subjects in the trade courses be taught 
by instructors in the trade school. Similar recommendations were 
made for the business, •agricultural, and home-economics schools. 
This recommendation not only was in line with general policy in 
other vocational schools but was substantiated by the positive results 
noted above from academic training with a vocational emphasis. 

TEACHER TRAINING. 

The primary aim of Hampton Institute at the time of its found¬ 
ing was to train teachers. No student was admitted to the school 
who did not agree to become a teacher. Even when the school took 
on additional types of instruction, when trades and agriculture were 
well under way, the only students actually graduated—-that is, given 
diplomas—were normal graduates. The object of the school was to 
send out trained classroom teachers, according to the school catalogue 
of 1893. The first class to graduate without teacher training was in 


34 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

1918, though there luid been individual exceptions among the men 
before that time. 

Since normal training figured so largely in the objective of the 
institute, it is to be expected that this phase of the work should 
have received especial consideration. The very enviable reputation 
enjoyed by Hampton-trained teachers during more than half a cen¬ 
tury is the natural result of the high standards that Hampton has 
always maintained in the department of teacher training. 

General Armstrong, himself a teacher before entering Williams 
College, knew that the best way to learn to teach was to teach. It 
is not surprising, therefore, to find, even in the very crowded three- 
year schedule, practice teaching at an early date. 

PROBLEM OF STRENGTHENING THE TEACHER-TRAINING WORK. 

Below is listed, in chronological order, the various methods which 
have been employed by Hampton Institute to strengthen its teacher- 
training work: 

1870—In addition to the subjects listed in the course of study, 
“ drill in teaching through the course ” was given. 

18 <8—At the close of the regular school year a teachers' institute 
was held. The senior class of 40 students and 20 graduates attended. 
The aim of the teachers’ institute was to provide technical training 
in the art of teaching. This practice continued until teacher 
training was developed at the Butler [now Whittier] school. 

1882—Practice teaching was begun at Butler school. 

1884— Each senior taught one half-day every two weeks at the 
Butler school. 

1885— The report of 1885 states that— 

According to the decision of the trustees at the last anual meeting, instead 
of continuing their studies, those who shall hereafter be promoted from the 
middle to the senior class will teach one year with a view of making the senior 
studies more profitable. 4 

1888—In the annual report for this year General Armstrong says: 

For the second time we have had a senior class of teachers, it being made 
up entirely of those who have had at least a year’s experience of teaching, 
some have had more. We feel more than ever convinced that we have made 
no mistake in what at first was tried as an experiment, the year of teaching 
between the middle and senior years. We hope it will come to be considered 
as a fourth year of the course, so long as it returns to us students more ma¬ 
ture and more intelligently earnest about fitting themselves for their work as 
teachers. 5 


4 This scheme capitalized the institute's observation that students who had to drop out 
of school for a year on account of lack of funds and who spent that year in teaching 
were superior to the students who had not had that experience. 

c The obvious danger in the above policy—that is, that students securing a position 
would not. return for the senior year—eventually caused a relaxation in the one-year 
teaching requirement and the scheme was finally dropped. 




THE ACADEMY AND NORMAL SCHOOL. 


35 


1892—Each senior spent a month at the Whittier training school. 

1898—By this time the seniors no longer had had the year of 
teaching and the authorities saw that their product was not as 
strong as in the late eighties and early nineties. 

In his annual report of 1898 Doctor Frissell says: 

The members of the present senior class of the academic department will 
not receive their teachers’ certificates as in former years at graduation. Prob¬ 
ably many of them will teach and they are in many respects better qualified 
than the graduates of former years, but if they are to receive Hampton’s 
teachers’ certificates they must, after graduation, pursue a special course in 
the normal department. In former years teachers’ certificates of a low grade 
were granted to those who went out at the end of their middle year. If we 
are to raise the grade of work done in the public schools we must insist on 
well-trained teachers. 6 

1905—The academic course was revised and lengthened to four 
years. Most of the subjects in the advanced normal course of 1898 
were incorporated in the new academic course. The plan for prac¬ 
tice teaching, adopted at this time, has been adhered to up to the 
present time. 

1910—Seniors taught in the Whittier training school five days 
a week for one-half a year. An attempt was made to establish an 
advanced course for the preparation of teachers of higher grade. 
The class started with 10 members but was discontinued after two 
years. The subjects in the course were again incorporated in the 
revision of the academic course of 1913, which placed that course on 
a four-year secondary basis. 

The time allotted to practice teaching in these courses might ap¬ 
pear excessive. No one w T ould claim that one-half a year of 
practice teaching was too much, but opinions differ as to the wisdom 
of the time distribution when 25 per cent of the total number of 
hours in a two-year normal course is set aside for practice teaching. 
The most effective answer is that splended results have been ob¬ 
tained in the four-year course on that basis, and that for the present 
the organization of both the Whittier training school and the 
normal school makes that the most feasible arrangement. 

1921—Seniors in the old academic-normal course 7 and seniors 
in the normal school 8 spend one-half year in the W hittier training 
school as student-teachers. This plan has been in operation since 
1905. 

PROBLEM OF TRAINING TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

The most frequent criticism to-day of Hampton s training of 
teachers, which is a valid one, is that the school does not send out 


6 This advanced normal course was a two-year course. 

7 See course of study in 1916, expiring in 1923. 

8 Course adopted in 1920. 




36 HAMPTON NORMAL, AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

teachers for the higher grades. Hampton has never attempted 
more than the preparation of elementary-school teachers. 

To-day there is an insistent demand for teachers in secondary 
schools. Schoolmen in the past have looked to Hampton Institute 
for teachers of their highest grades. They still do. 

The school’s reputation has suffered because graduates have been 
placed in high-school positions for which they had not training. 

The authorities of the institute have clearly recognized the de¬ 
mand for teachers in the higher schools and are now ready to offer 
courses for the preparation of high-school teachers and elementary 
and high-school principals. 

The courses of study w r hicli are offered in the normal school for 
1922-23 will be found on page 27. 


THE WHITTIER TRAINING SCHOOL. 

Saba® J. Walter, 

Principal, Whittier Training School, Hampton Institute. 

In the summer of 1887 the Butler schoolhouse, which had long 
been used as a practical school for Hampton, was bestowed upon 
the colored people of the neighborhood. The Butler’s successor 
was a plain but commodious wooden building, with many of the 
modern conveniences of kitchen, sewing room, janitor’s room, and 
technical carpenter shop. On Wednesday, November 23, 1887, the 
Butler’s successor opened its doors. 

It seemed natural to name the new schoolhouse after its builder, 
but the generous givers preferred to have no family name attached 
to their gift. All readily agreed with General Armstrong’s sugges¬ 
tion to give it the name of John G. Whittier, with whom his own 
and Hampton’s relation had long been one of gratitude and affec¬ 
tion. So, with the poet’s acceptance of the tribute, the Whittier 
schoolhouse was named. Pictures of Mr. Whittier, with two framed 
letters in the poet’s own handwriting, hang in the assembly room, 
and year by year the pupils honor the birthday of the one for whom 
the building has been named. 

On Saturday, March 1, 1890, the school was suddenly broken up 
by an alarm that the Whittier was on fire. On Monday, November 
24, 1890, the Whittier school was reopened in a new building, which, 
except for some enlargement and improvement, was a reproduction 
of the one that had burned a short time before. 

In 1897 the model training class at the summer normal school 
was conducted by a Whittier teacher who had been a Butler pupil. 



THE WHITTIER TRAINING SCHOOL. 


37 


TEACHER TRAINING GIVEN STUDENTS. 

The training of teachers in summer schools and institutes is not 
a new idea at Hampton. In 1876 Mrs. Walton was one of the 
pioneer teachers in the institute work of Hampton Institute. In 
1877 Prof. James Johonnot, of Ithaca, 1ST. Y., conducted an in¬ 
stitute for the teachers. In 1876 Professor Allen, of Pennsylvania, 
held an institute for the benefit of the graduating class and post¬ 
graduates who were able to attend. This institute was attended by 
60, of whom 20 were postgraduate students. Three lectures were 
daily delivered, and an examination was held on June 14 at the 
close of the institute. This was the first technical training in the 
art of teaching provided by the institute. The same year the chil¬ 
dren at the Butler School showed their hand skill through articles 
that were sent to the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. 

Jn 1878 the first alumni meeting was held. It is interesting to 
note that on June 21, 1921, the class that graduated on May 12, 1916, 
held its five-year reunion and pledged themselves to give $1,200 
toward a musical scholarship. 

In 1878 Colonel Parker, of Quincy, Mass., conducted the institute 
for the teachers. Again, the graduates in 1879 had the benefit of 
Colonel Parker’s inspiring lectures, and Miss Bullard, a former 
pupil of his, conducted the Butler school through that year, making 
it a school of observation for the seniors. 

Up to July, 1878, out of 222 graduates, only 17 had failed to teach 
of those who had come under the instruction received by the Hamp¬ 
ton gradusfte. 

In 1880 General Armstrong said of the Butler school: 

The Butler school lias an average of 200, and is an important auxiliary to 
the institute. It has sheen taught for two years on Quincy methods, as far 
as possible, and it affords valuable training to the normal school under a 
skilled teacher. 

PRESENT-DAY WORK OF THE WHITTIER SCHOOL. 9 

These are some of the changes that have come. To-day our school 
enrolls over J00 pupils. The time has been changed from the eight 
months, so long in vogue, to a nine months’ school year, thus making 
the term longer in which to do the work. 

A trained nurse gives Thursday and Friday of each week to the 
needs of the children who require her services and to the home. The 
girls of the highest class also receive valuable instruction in the care 
of the sick. 

A patrons’ league, known as the Whittier Parents’ Association, 
meets regularly on the third Friday of each month. The first meet- 


* As of December, 1&21. 




38 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


ing of the year is in the nature of a social arid is given by the par¬ 
ents of the children to the Whittier teachers. The last meeting of 
the year the compliment is returned, and the Whittier teachers give 
the parents and friends of the school a social. This league gives 
strong financial backing to the school. 

The number of grades has been changed from seven to nine, thus 
taking in two years of high-school work and enabling older boys 
and girls to remain in school at least two years longer and prepar¬ 
ing them to go to higher schools. 

A hot lunch is prepared by members of the home-economics class 
who are taking the normal training work. Each year since starting 
the lunch has seen a larger number of children availing themselves 
of the warm noonday meal. 

Over 200 home gardens are supervised by the agricultural men 
who are taking their training at the Whittier. 

The school is taught in music, manual training, and drawing by 
teachers from the institute, who teach regularly at the Whittier. 

INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES OF WHITTIER GIRLS. 

Any girl who goes through the nine years at the Whittier School 
has had instruction along the following lines: 

Room 1—Cutting, pasting, dusting, waiting on door, and helping to keep the 
room clean. Projects relating to health, race story, and gardens are also given 
to the pupils. 

Room 2—Cutting, pasting, sewing rags for the loom, table setting and dusting, 
snipping for cushions, and projects, as in room 1, growing out of their class- 
work problems are given to the children. 

Room 3—Sewing bags and dusters are made, also the beginning of a simple 
garment. Cardboard work. Dusting is also emphasized in this room. 

Room 4—Dusting and the care of a room. Petticoats and drawers are made 
by the children, and they are taught how to make a bed. For this purpose 
small bedsteads are made by the boys in the manual-training room. 

Room 5—Petticoats, drawers, and aprons are made. Dusting, housekeeping, 
and bed making, using, as in room 4, the small beds. 

Room 6—Dusting. Cooking is begun. The girls here learn to prepare very 
simple dishes, and underwear making is continued. Housekeeping and the care 
of a bedroom. In this room pupils are transferred from the work with small 
bedsteads to the care of a bedroom. A room has been added to the kitchen for 
this purpose, and, with the help of the boys in making box furniture and of 
the girls at the loom in weaving rugs, the room has been very neatly fur¬ 
nished. 

Room 7—Dusting; cooking of a more advanced nature; underwear and 
crocheting ; housekeeping. Baskets are made. 

Rooms 8 and 9—Housekeeping is continued along all lines. Dresses are made. 
Patching and darning. Darning and patching are employed in all of the rooms 
as the need arises for the mending of children’s clothing, sewing on buttons, etc. 

Room 9—Cooking, neighborhood needs; housekeeping. The housekeeping 
includes washing, ironing, removing stains, scrubbing, stove polishing, lighting 
fires, cleaning woodwork, the care of a bedroom, care of any room, dishwashing, 
sweeping, and dusting. 


THE WHITTIER TRAINING SCHOOL. 39 

The children also in the two highest grades do neighborhood work. 

The dusting throughout the building is done by the pupils. 

Bed making is taught from the second room up through the ninth. 

Weaving is taught in room 9. 

At Thanksgiving time the girls in the older rooms prepare a dinner 
or make pies for a number of aged people of the community. The 
Weaver Home for Orphans, a local negro institution, is generously 
remembered at this time. 

The social for the patrons’ league and other social gatherings of 
the year afford an opportunity for serving a large number. 

At Christmas time candy making and wreath making are taught. 
At Easter the younger children are taught to color eggs. 

INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES OF WHITTIER BOYS. 

Up to the fourth year boys and girls are taught alike, but in the 
fourth year a regular course in manual training is begun for boys. 
It has been found wise to begin to differentiate their work and sep¬ 
arate the boys and girls in this grade, in order to carry out the 
principles underlying home and community service. In all of the 
rooms the boys bring the water and do the heavy work, cleaning 
boards, etc. Repairs of a simple nature in schoolroom and yard 
are made by the boys in rooms 7, 8, and 9. Yard apparatus is also 
made by these older boys. 

Among some of the school and household articles made by the 
boys are corn-shuck mats, crab nets, seesaws, basket-ball apparatus, 
desk repairs, rulers, fireless cooker, iceless cooler, shoe tabaret, um¬ 
brella stand, soap and fancy boxes, bird houses, etc. 

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING GIVEN PUPIL TEACHERS. 

In the last or professional year of 1922 the school gave, as an evi¬ 
dence of the work done in its various, departments, a diploma and 
State of Virginia professional elementary school certificate good for 
10 years and subject to renewal upon certain conditions of good 
behavior, scholarship, and school management. 

The subjects that have been studied and that have had a direct 
bearing upon professional life are educational psychology; special 
methods in arithmetic, reading, hygiene, etc.; one book from the 
State reading course, recommended by the Virginia State Board 
of Education and forming a basis for the principles used in present¬ 
ing subject matter and a guide, to a certain extent, in the course of 
observation which precedes the practice; a course Jin preventive dis¬ 
eases and medicine, given by some one under the auspices of the Vir¬ 
ginia State Board of Health, cooperating with the Viriginia State 
Board of Education. 


40 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


There has been teaching under supervision for four months, 
giving the entire time to preparation of lessons and class manage¬ 
ment. 

Some of the students had a taste of settlement work and received 
the last two months of their training at the Virginia Industrial 
School for Colored Girls, at Peak, Va. This institution is under 
the supervision of Mrs. Janie Porter Barrett, a graduate of Hampton 
Institute. 

There has been given an opportunity to get a nine-years’ well- 
balanced program, giving to the teacher the sequence and correlation 
of subjects. There have been many chances to see how a large school 
is managed in detail with regard to attendance, tardiness, signals, 
marching, dismissal, morning exercises, etc.; also how a school 
hot lunch can be prepared and served. 

There has been the opportunity of direction in free and directed 
play in yard at recess and in schoolroom. 

On Friday morning instead of the usual morning exercises the 
time has been given over to Sunday-school instruction or Bible 
work. This is followed at -3.20 in the- afternoon, the discussion hour, by 
the study of principles and methods, also of what could have been 
done to have made the day’s work stronger in principle and character 
building. 

Perhaps you would like to know what the daily program of one 
is who is taking the training. It is a busy day for all. This is the 
schedule: 8.35-8.55. preparation of classroom for day’s work; 9- 
9.15, devotions in assembly hall (every day except Friday); 9.20- 
10.30, classroom work according to schedule; 10.30-10.40, outdoor 
recess; 10.43-11.55, classroom work; 11.55-12.00, dismissal; 1.15-2.15, 
classroom work; 2.15-2.25, games, setting-up drill, etc.; 2.35-3.12 
classroom work; and 3.12-3.15 dismissal. 

SOME WHITTIER* TRAINING SCHOOL NEEDS. 

From the foregoing course of work and method with regard to 
the Whittier training, it .must not be supposed for one moment that 
there are not many things left undone and many things that need 
to be changed. 

Some of the immediate needs are more men to take the training 
and go out to take positions as principals of county training schools 
and principals of public schools. 

Men are spoken of because a boy from 12 to 16 years of age needs 
the influence exerted by a man of strong character and scholarly 
instincts. „ % 


THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 


41 

It would be a great asset to the training teacher if lie had an ele¬ 
mentary knowledge of the earth and its relation to the needs of man 
through food, shelter, and clothing. 

The teachers who take the training, as a rule, have not the neces¬ 
sary foundation for a course in race-story and nature study to carry 
on these two lines of activity with children. 

There should be more opportunities for the prospective teacher to 
visit and teach in near-by schools. The industrial work of the -rural 
schools of the county and adjoining counties could be done by mem¬ 
bers of the training class as a part of their training. This would 
add very greatly to the efficiency of the one in training, giving him 
a broader view of his work. 

There is also something to be said in connection with getting an¬ 
other point of view, different from that given by the home school. 
Principles are universal, but their application must vary according 

to needs. 


THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 

Warren K. Blodgett, 

Director, Agricultural School, Haiiipto'U Institute . 

Prom the first farm operations in 1808, when General Armstrong 
and his associates set out to supply the institution’s needs for food, 
until the organization of the collegiate agricultural course in 1920, 
there has been an evolution in which each step has been taken in 
answer to the existing needs of American negroes. Each step has 
been developed and in turn has been readapted to changing needs. 

Educational fearlessness has been the outstanding characteristic 
of the changes which have been made developing the agricultural 
program. There has been a willingness to give up one line of work 
and start some new line of work, whenever it has been clear that 
conditions have been changing sufficiently to warrant new aims and 
methods or when any special kind of work has not given the 
expected good results. 

There has always been a tendency to look at immediate problems 
with a new vision, to cut loose from schoolmen’s tradition, if neces¬ 
sary, and to take forward steps, based upon the educational needs of 
negroes and Indians. 

PRACTICAL F ARMING FROM THE BEGINNING. 

The problems of securing a food supply and of providing emplo}^ 
ment for pupils were pressing in the early days as they were in 
many other industrial or vocational schools. Hampton was for r 
tunate enough to secure for its first farm manager a man who com- 



42 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

bined practical farm experience and ability to handle men with a 
big, generous sympathy for those crude, needy, ambitious students 
who came under him. 

Under this practical farm manager, a negro or Indian boy, who 
had been assigned to duty on the farm, was sure to get some educa¬ 
tion for life; he learned to work, to be prompt, and to be neat; 
above all he was instructed in the best methods of farming through 
actually doing the work of a farmer. 

To work hard, to be on time, and to do a task thoroughly—these 
were some of the real needs of those ex-slaves who came to Hampton 
in the early days. This practical field training which was under the 
direction of a wide-awake, level-headed farm manager, was supple¬ 
mented by class-room work in elementary English, arithmetic, and 
elementary agricultural science. 

INTRODUCTION OF AN AGRICULTURAL TEACHER. 

As numbers grew and as it was seen that the gospel of bettor 
farming could best be carried afield by giving more definite instruc¬ 
tion in the why and wherefore of farm practices, a special teacher 
of agriculture was added to the classroom teaching staff. This in¬ 
structor’s task was that of teaching the scientific meanings of the 
daily farm tasks. He was not a part of the farm manager’s organi¬ 
zation, and there naturally arose the problem of adjusting the teach¬ 
ing of agriculture in the classroom and the practice of agriculture 
on the farm. Hampton early learned that it is not wise to have 
the practice of agriculture and the teaching of agriculture widely 
separated. 

TEACHING AND PRACTICAL WORK UNITED. 

All agricultural activities were placed in 1906 under one head, 
who was called a “ director of the agricultural department.” Under 
the director there was a superintendent of the farm. This organi¬ 
zation continues to-day at the large school farm, called “ Shellbanks’ 
farm,” which is located 5 miles from Hampton Institute. 

A slightly modified plan, however, was worked out for the 
near-by Whipple farm, which is the local institute farm. This farm 
was organized into several divisions—dairy, creamery, poultry, horse 
barn, and horticulture. A man who was qualified to teach each of 
these branches of agriculture and was also qualified to superintend 
the operation of each division was placed in charge of each division. 
It was expected from this organization that the so-called practical 
and the scientific—the how and the why—would be closely united. 

The man who was in charge of the dairy, for example, taught the 
classroom work in dairying. If an instructor, however, was to meet 
regular classroom appointments, he could not be at his post on 


BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 4 



A. CLASS IN PHYSICS. 

The laws cf mechanics are studied in relation to farm machinery and rural engineering. 



B. WORKING AN AGRICULTURAL PROJECT. 
Each student works his project on a business basis. 
















BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 5 



A. CLASS IN AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 

Chemical analyses cf soils, fertilizers, and feeds are included in this course. 



B. THE DAIRY HERD. 





















THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 


43 


the farm to give the proper supervision which was greatly needed, 
especially when inexperienced students were constantly to be trained. 
Consequently, a foreman, working under the division head, was in¬ 
stalled in each division. This item of reorganization increased the 
agricultural department’s expense. 

Although an attempt has been and is now made to apportion sal¬ 
aries so as to separate educational from purely productive effort, this 
apportionment has never been fully accomplished. The farm has 
always had to bear more overhead and supervision expense than a 
commercial farm would have had to bear. 

EDUCATIONAL AND PRODUCTIVE WORK COMBINED. 

If the director pressed upon the division heads to make the divi¬ 
sions pay , then the division heads, in their effort to reduce expenses, 
were tempted to curtail on that training which seriously reduced 
the educational advantages of their work. 

It is a difficult and debatable question to decide. What expense 
should be borne by an educational account and what expense should 
be borne by a productive department? 

What is educational to-day may be productive next week, and what 
is productive under one condition may be wholly educational under 
other conditions. Many expenses are truly both educational charges 
and charges for productive work. He is a wise administrator who 
can properly assign them in any budget of accounts. 

Some institutions have always carried separately the two activi¬ 
ties—education and production—with the result that there has been 
an undesirable distinction in the students’ minds between farming to 
7nake a living and farming to teach others how to farm . 

Hampton has not separated the two phases of educational and pro¬ 
ductive work in agriculture, but has closely tied together the ideas 
of education and production. 

GIVING STUDENTS ALL-ROUND TRAINING. 

The agricultural department was organized in 1913 on a four-year 
high-school basis. Students spend one-half day in agricultural 
classes and one-half day at practice work in some division of the 
farm or its associated activities, such as the floral division, the up¬ 
keep of roads and grounds division. 

After supper the students attended two classes in academic studies, 
such as English, literature, history, mathematics, and other English 
branches. 

The plan of shifting students for their one-half day practice from 
one division to another every few weeks, with a certain number of 
47096°—23-4 



44 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


months assigned to the care and handling of poultry, a certain num¬ 
ber to the planting, growing, and harvesting of vegetables, had the 
advantage of giving students a wide opportunity to acquire various 
skills under close and competent supervision. 

There were, however, many difficulties in the administration of 
this plan. It often became necessary, for example, to find work for 
students in certain divisions, when there was no definite need of 
their services in that division. There was also the lack of close 
connection between what the student chose to call theory and prac¬ 
tice. The same problem might come up in the classroom and then 
in practice weeks or years apart. The instructor in the classroom 
often found that some students had had the desirable practice when 
problems came up, while others were still waiting for their turn 
to get some practical experience. 

While students were acquiring proper skills and habits of indus¬ 
try and thoroughness, under careful supervision, there was not 
enough promise that these habits would be effective, if the student 
were thrown on his own responsibility as he must be thrown in after 
life. All the management of the work under this plan of organiza¬ 
tion was in the hands of instructors. The decisions rested with 
them. There was constant pressure to make the divisions pay. 
There was not much time during which the student could try out 
something himself or during which instructors could wait for him 
to exercise his initiative. The student did as he was directed. 

It was found that in the classroom teaching the lecture method 
was being more widely used than it should and that it was not 
getting the results which were sought. The student himself did not 
have enough opportunity in the classroom to discover ideas and 
try out the ideas he had acquired. He was apt to rely too much 
upon the teacher. 

The academic work, which was done at night after a full day’s 
work, was not done under advantageous mental conditions. It often 
left students who were poorly equipped in English when they en¬ 
tered Hampton all too poorly equipped when they graduated. 

ADVANCED COURSE PAVES WAT FOR COLLEGE COURSE. 

Some time before the complete organization of the secondary 
course in agriculture which has been described, there was organized 
what was called a postgraduate high-school course in agriculture. 
As its name implies, this course was offered for those who had 
graduated from the secondary course at Hampton or had pursued 
successfully an equivalent course in some other institution. The 
work in this course was of a more advanced nature than the regular 
agricultural work offered at Hampton. More science was given 


THE AGRICULTURAL, SCHOOL. 45 

than in the regular course. Students were given considerable re¬ 
sponsibility in respect to classroom and outside assignments. 

The object of this advanced course in agriculture was to prepare 
men for extension teaching and for the management of farming 
enterprises. While the students w^ere few, they were of the highest 
caliber. This is proved by the fact that most of the graduates of 
this course now hold positions of responsibility. 

This advanced work was given up because of administrative diffi¬ 
culties. Besides giving a few very valuable workers to the field of 
extension teaching, this postgraduate course in agriculture pointed 
the way to what was needed. This course later became a strong argu¬ 
ment for establishing the agricultural work at Hampton on a college 
i basis. 

NEED OF HAVING STUDENTS EXPRESS THEMSELVES. 

In 1918 a survey of the work of Hampton was made by Prof. Paul 
H. Hanus, of Harvard, under the auspices of the General Education 
Board. Dr. P. W. Stimson, of Massachusetts, was selected to make 
the special study of Hampton’s agricultural activities. Doctor Stim- 
I son’s report made many helpful suggestions, but the chief one fol¬ 
lows : The students lack opportunity to organize for themselves and 
express what they are learning in the field and in the classroom. 

To remedy this defect, Doctor Stimson felt that the classroom 
teaching should be improved by the introduction of more recitation 
and laboratory work. He also recommended that the agricultural 
project, as it was then being carried out in some of the Northern 
States, should be introduced. The home project was impossible, since 
this kind of work would involve having students stay the year round 
at Hampton. 

TEACHING FARMERS AND RURAL LEADERS. 

In 1918, according to the school catalogue, the object of the agri¬ 
cultural department was “ to train young men to be farmers.” The 
course was planned to train farmers. Of all the recent Hampton 
graduates, however, practically none could be found who were farm- 
I ers, according to the general definition of that term. Many could be 
found, however, and these among the leading graduates, who were 
agricultural teachers, rural-school principals, and farm-demonstra¬ 
tion or extension-service agents. 

BETTER-TRAINED MEN IN DEMAND. 

The Smith-Lever and Smith-Hughes Acts have presented, and still 
present, growing opportunities for important agricultural service. 
For this work there are needed men of the best training. These 





46 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


changing agricultural needs among American negroes caused Hamp¬ 
ton to decide, in 1920, to establish its agricultural work on a col¬ 
legiate basis. 

A careful survey was made before this step was taken to see if it 
was justified. It was found from Hampton graduates who were fill¬ 
ing important school and Government positions in agricultural work 
that in almost every case the men who held the more important posts 
had found it necessary to supplement their Hampton agricultural 
training by further training elsewhere. 

The demand was constantly growing for men who had more train¬ 
ing in agriculture than was given in the usual secondary agricultural 
course. It was discovered that the most service could be rendered 
to agriculture and to rural-life improvement by training those who 
could go to the farmer and farm children in their own community 
and teach not only better farm practices, but the broader principles 
of cooperative effort, business management, and rural sanitation. 

By preparing well-qualified teachers of agriculture who can hold 
positions in the colored land-grant schools, agricultural training 
of a high order may be given to many boys without the necessity 
of their leaving their own States. The greatest hindrance to the 
establishment of strong agricultural departments in these schools 
has been the lack of qualified teachers who have a proper educa¬ 
tional outlook. These reasons determined Hampton’s policy in 
putting the agricultural school on the collegiate basis. 

It is believed that some of the graduates from the college course 
in agriculture will choose to demonstrate that a complete education 
in agriculture fits a man to become the best possible farmer. For 
some time, because of the great demand for teachers of agricul¬ 
ture, most of the graduates in agriculture may elect to teach. It 
is believed, however, that some graduates will elect the occupation 
of farming and in this way will perhaps do more than those who 
teach to show that more education in agriculture, as in other call¬ 
ings, will bring an individual a fuller and a more complete life. 

COLLEGE COURSE IN AGRICULTURE. 

The college course in agriculture, which was organized in 1920, 
has progressed far enough for one to say something about its ac¬ 
tual operation. 

The entrance requirements are farm experience and the comple¬ 
tion of a secondary-school course. Farm experience is required, not 
only for the information or skill which it gives, but more especially 
for the background and appreciation of rural problems which it 
furnishes prospective agricultural leaders. 


THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 


47 


A NEW DEPARTURE. 

The curriculum departs somewhat from that of the regular college 
by requiring continuous attendance at the Hampton Institute ag¬ 
ricultural school for 3 years of 12 months each, rather than for 4 
years of 9 months each. 

The year is the unit for farm operations. All students must 
carry a farm project throughout each year. 

The courses of study are organized on the quarter, or 12-week 
basis. The major part of the time in the fall, winter, and spring 
quarters is devoted to work in the classroom, the shop, and the 
laboratory. The major part of the summer quarter is devoted to 
practice work. 

The drawing of sharp lines between subjects is not encouraged. 

The coordinating of one subject with another, under proper con¬ 
ditions, is encouraged. 

The result which is sought is the securing of a broader point of 
view on the part of the students and a wider and also a more mean¬ 
ingful student appreciation of classroom work. 

A study of the first-year field-crops course would show that the 
instructor, while taking up the question, What is the best time to 
cut corn? had touched upon some questions which were generally 
left to the botany department. He had not gone fully into the bo¬ 
tanical side of the problem of corn-harvesting, but he had given 
sufficient information and had awakened sufficient interest to con¬ 
nect up the time of harvest with the process of photosynthesis and 
there left it for the science teacher to work out more fully at some 
later period. Farm-crops problems did not stop in this class with 
problems of horn to grow crops any more than they did in a com¬ 
mercial farmer’s actual experience. These farm-crops problems had 
opened the way to problems of the farm management and economics. 

Thus it is hoped that, by the combination of theory and practice, 
the evil of narrow specialization has been avoided. 

It might be added that this combination method is pursued in 
all agricultural subjects for the first two-thirds of the college course. 
Specialization, as it is generally understood, is reserved for the last 
year of the course. 

THE COLLEGE COURSE OFFERS ALL-ROUND TRAINING. 

The relative time devoted to the different subjects, if translated 
into college semester hours on the usual basis that one semester hour 
equals one hour (55 minutes) of prepared work or two hours of 
laboratory work per week for 18 weeks, shows that approximately 
20 semester hours are devoted during the whole course to each of 





48 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

the following subject groups: English, social science, science, 
mathematics and rural engineering, agriculture, and professional 
work (teacher training). 

The college course in agriculture covers a total of 122 semester 
hours. The minimum standard required for graduation from agri¬ 
cultural colleges is 120 semester hours. 

Below is given a complete tabular view of the studies in the col¬ 
lege course in agriculture, as of January, 1922. The table may be 
suggestive to those who are planning similar courses of study. 
While the table indicates that all the courses are prescribed, never¬ 
theless, Hampton has always been willing to make changes in its 
courses to meet the needs of those whom it seeks to help. 


Hampton Institute agricultural school program of studies , January, 1922. 




First 

12 months. 

Second 

12 months. 

Third 

12 months. 

p. 

3 

O 

S-, 

M 



Class periods. 1 

Class periods. 

Class periods. 

’o 

C3 

05 

Studies. 

Branches. 

First quarter. 

| Second quarter. 

| Third quarter. 

| Fourth quarter. 

j Semester hours. 

| First quarter. 

| Second quarter. 

| Third quarter. 

| Fourth quarter. 

| Semester horn’s. 

j First quarter. 

| Second quarter. 

| Third quarter. 

| Fourth quarter. 

| Semester hours. 

f—i 
• »—< 

zn 

H 

3 

o 

05 

3 

a 

© 

rjl 

English. 

American and English lit¬ 
erature; practice in writ¬ 
ing and speaking. 

TTi story ofmraliife 

5 

5 

5 

1 

9 

5 

4 

4 

1 

8 

5 


3 

3 

6 

23 

Social science and 
economics. 

3 

o 

3 


5 












Rural sociology and mar¬ 
keting. 

Economicsand farm man- 






3 

3 

3 


5 

















3 


3 

3 

5 

• 15 

SniencA 

agement. 

Chemistry . 

8 

6 

8 


6 


6 

6 


3 








TTveiftno 

4 



2 













Soil technology.. 






6 

4 



4 






22 


Sanitation (bacteriology 1.. 







6 



2 







Elective; botany and ento¬ 
mology. 

Farm machinery ; physics ; 

and farm shopwork 
Farm buildings and 
weather conditions. 

Cas oneines; drainage_ 










6 


6 

6 

5 


Mathematics, phys¬ 
ics, and rural en¬ 
gineering. 2 3 

5 

6 

6 

2 

9 















5 

5 



5 






► 20 











2 


5 

5 

6 

Agriculture . 

Farm crops 

4 

3 

3 

2 

6 













Animal husbandry. 






6 

5 

5 

3 

9 








Farm projects, including 
technical study and 
business management. 
Elective. 

5 

0 

4 

6 

3 i 

4 

3 

3 

4 

3 1 






22 








3 


3 

3 

5 

Professional work... 

Educational psychology_ 






3 

3 

3 


5 







Practice-teaching. " _ 







2 



1 


15 



6 

■ 20 


Methods of teaching. 











s' 

5 

5 

8 


















Total semes- 






38 





43 





41 

122 

ter hours. 















1 Semester hours are figured according to the usual standard, namely, 1 college semester hour equals 1 
period of work prepared or 21aboratory periods of 55 minutes each for IS weeks. For graduation 120 semester 
hours are required. 

2 During each year the essential mathematical and physical principles which are connected with these 
subjects receive about one-fourth of the time which is here indicated. This includes some study of algebra, 
geometry, mechanics, heat, and electricity, as well as drafting, mapping, and leveling. 

3 Farm project may come in first quarter of next year, depending on date when business of project is closed. 














































































THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 


49 


AGRICULTURAL PROJECTS HAVE HIGH EDUCATIONAL VALUE. 

The college course in agriculture is not planned for the final train¬ 
ing of specialists in a particular branch of agriculture. Well- 
rounded, broadly educated colored men who are fitted for rural 
leadership are needed to-day. The reckoning of semester hours, 
which is given above, takes no account of the agricultural project. 

The project, because of the conventional method of figuring col¬ 
legiate credits, can not claim any semester hour credits, but on 
account of the way in which the required agricultural credits are 
carried out the effectiveness of the 20 semester hours devoted to agri¬ 
culture is more than doubled. 

The students spend no more time on their projects than many a 
man in another agricultural college spends in earning his way 
through school by waiting on table, doing clerical work, tending 
furnaces, or doing some other things to earn money. Besides being 
of fundamental help to the student, the project serves the extra pur¬ 
pose of adding to the educational value of the regular classroom and 
laboratory work. 

GENERAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

A study of the work in the curriculum, which is truly vocational, 
will reveal the fact that considerable of the work given under head¬ 
ings other than agriculture is actually contributing to the vocational 
aim. The diagram, given on page 50, shows graphically the relative 
proportion of time which) is devoted to the larger subject classifi¬ 
cations. 

In each of these subject groups some of the work is general edu¬ 
cational and some is specifically vocational. Exactly where the 
dividing line will fall is impossible to determine, because whether a 
piece of information contributes to make a better teacher of agricul¬ 
ture and a better farmer or whether it contributes only to a student’s 
store of general knowledge it is impossible to say. The defini¬ 
tions of general education and of vocational knowledge in any field 
are capable of various interpretations, depending upon the indi¬ 
vidual’s point of view. 

According to the most commonly accepted standards, however, the 
line can be drawn as it is in the diagram, which shows that some 
of the work in each subject group is clearly vocational education and 
some is general education. To be vocational the work in the non- 
agricultural groups must be carefully planned and taught in such 
a way that the student will grasp and apply his knowledge to voca¬ 
tional ends. Herein lies the secret of the organization of this cur¬ 
riculum, which makes possible careful coordination between instruc¬ 
tors and especially a certain focusing of all subjects on the vocational 
aim. 




50 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

The means of accomplishing this combination is through careful 
planning of subject matter and point of view of courses, constant 
following up by some one who is held responsible for the educational 
direction of the curriculum, and the constant survey of what is being 
done, how it is being done, and above all, the willingness on the part 
of instructors to adapt their work to the big aim of the agricultural 
school. 

Moreover a proper balance must be maintained. It would be a 
calamity, if all the English and literature and social science work 

Semester 
• hours. 


23 


15 


22 


20 


22 


20 

2. Contributing to vocational aims. 

Relative proportion of time devoted to each of the subject 
groups. 

were strictly vocational. This would result in producing students 
with a narrow outlook on life—students who saw T everything from 
one viewpoint. An attempt is therefore made to keep the work 
according to the diagram. Part of each subject specifically con¬ 
tributes immediately to the aim—the preparation of teachers of agri¬ 
culture—and part contributes to a broad general viewpoint—the 
viewpoint of a man who is not merely trained in agriculture. 

During the first year of the college course, when the main object 
in agriculture is farm crops, the student must carry a crop project 











THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 


51 


of reasonable size. He does his project work on a business basis. 
The student is the manager. He decides when he will plant and 
what he will plant. He exercises his own powers of initiative and 
decision. He takes the consequences—failure or financial success. 

There is, of course, a project instructor, who may also be connected 
with the economics and farm management activities of the agricul¬ 
tural school. This teacher meets with the students once a week or 
as often as he is needed. He helps them to get out plans. He acts 
as business agent for the agricultural school, when the students wish 
to borrow money or rent land and buildings. He is always ready to 
give help in securing information. He does not, however, order or 
direct students as to how their work shall be done. 

Students must keep careful accounts. The data from these student 
accounts of agricultural projects are used in the farm management 
class as the point of departure in the study of larger management 
problems. 

The projects for the second year deal with the management of 
animals. During the year the students study animal husbandry, a 
general introductory course, in which the time is divided among 
different instructors who take up, for example, dairying, poultry 
raising, the raising of beef cattle. 

The third year allows students opportunities for specialization 
in an elected branch of animal husbandry. 

The attitude of the instructors with regard to the agricultural 
project is Rands off . If things are going wrong, either through 
negligence or the lack of study and correlation by the student, that 
is the student’s loss and he must suffer for it. 

Difficulties which arise in connection with the project work are 
reported in the agricultural school's general teachers’ meetings and 
are used as the basis of future classroom discussions. If something 
which seems wrong was caused by the student’s lack of sufficient 
experience, sometimes a question will be asked or a hint given which 
sets the student to solving his problem. 

It is unfortunate that the term “ project ” should be used, since 
it suggests secondary agricultural education and the so-called pro¬ 
ject at Hampton is distinctly not of secondary grade, but is of col¬ 
legiate grade. The projects in farm crops and animal husbandry 
are administered on a different plan than those which are connected 
with secondary schools. They are used partly as a try-out ground 
for classroom and laboratory work, but chiefly they are used to give 
the widest possible scope for the development of the initiative of 
the young men who are following the college course in agriculture. 


52 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

AIMS, METHODS, AND RESULTS OF CROP PROJECTS FOR 1921. 

The aims, methods, and results of the projects for the year 1921, 
based on the report of the instructor who had charge of the first-year 
crop projects, follows: 

The aims of the crop projects for 1921 were: (1) To develop 
initiative; (2) to develop responsibility; (3) to develop judgment; 
(4) to teach accurate and businesslike record keeping; (5) to teach 
the value and proper use of credit and prompt payment of obliga¬ 
tions; (6) to develop a sensing of market demands; (7) to show the 
importance of timeliness and cost in cultural methods; and (8) to 
give practice in technical skills and cultural methods. 

The methods follow: 

(1) Plan. —The project must be conceived and followed through 
in detail in the student’s mind. This was determined by question¬ 
ing the plan. 

(2) Records. — (a) The labor record, including hired, self, and 
horse; (b) the record of transactions, including receipts and ex¬ 
penses, bills receivable, and bills payable; and ( c) the determining 
of factors. 

(3) Fincmeing. —Arrangements were made by students entirely. 
Students give notes with insurance, if required, use the school the 
same as an outside merchant, or pay cash. 

(4) Marketing. —Left entirely with the student to find a market 
to sell goods and collect money. 

(5) Supervision. —In all cases the instructor in charge kept his 
hands off, unless he was asked for help. This is the crux of the 
success of this work, in which initiative and judgment development 
are of prime importance. Accounts are checked up; help is given in 
referring students to sources of information when asked; crucial 
times in project development were noted for use in final round-table 
discussion. 

The results were discussed by groups of students and instructors. 
Some of the following topics were considered: (1) Good and poor 
management; (2) the relation of good management to profit; (3) 
size of project (not acreage) and relation to profits; (4) good and 
poor use of labor; (5) relation of yields to cost per unit and to 
profits; (6) good and poor choice of crops to meet market demands; 
and (7) the returns per man hour (27 cents to $1.24) in 1921. 

LEARNING BY DOING IS PROFESSIONAL TRAINING. 

The college course in agriculture aims to prepare teachers— 
teachers in the broadest sense—including county agents and exten¬ 
sion-service men. For this reason professional work begins early 
in the agricultural course. 


THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 


53 


Since the necessity of preparing men to teach in ways other than 
as classroom teachers is recognized and as occasion arises through¬ 
out the year, students are sent away for a day or more to get prac¬ 
tice in assisting teachers at fairs, exhibits, and demonstrations, and 
in assisting county agents at farmers’ meetings. 

Time credit is given for this practice teaching, for a required 
amount of practice teaching must be done before a student may be 
graduated. 

While this service afield may break into the continuity of an indi¬ 
vidual student’s studies, it is felt that this plan of field service and 
classroom work will constantly keep before the young men of the 
agricultural school the all-important problem; namely, the prepa¬ 
ration for efficient rural service. 

This method of learning by doing as an aid to professional train¬ 
ing is regarded as a process of reaching out into everyday life. It 
is carried on, not only as a part of the teacher-training work, but 
also as a part of other work as well. 

Other examples of relating agricultural education to life follow: 
(1) A sociology class spent some time getting up a play which was 
planned to show why boys leave the farm and the conditions under 
which they will want to remain in the rural sections; (2) an English 
class attended a school dedication in the neighborhood to study the 
speeches and the general arrangement of the program. 

The agricultural school, since the establishment of its collegiate 
work, has encouraged and aided its instructors in traveling, so that 
they might get a better grasp of the essential problems of their 
work. ' 

The professional work, covering 20 semester hours, includes courses 
in educational psychology and methods of teaching. 

LEARNING TO TEACH BY TEACHING. 

With the bulk of practice teaching concentrated in the last year, 
why should some be required earlier in the course? The reason is 
that as soon as a student has had an opportunity to try teaching for 
himself he immediately has a different point of view toward the 
teaching which he is experiencing. After even a few attempts to 
teach, the student is able to understand and assimilate as a definite 
addition to his own knowledge the methods of his own teachers and 
the subject matter of the other professional work. 

Practice teaching placed at the beginning of the course, however, 
would be too early for the proper appreciation by students of methods 
and also too earty in fairness to the pupils who are being “ practiced 
on.” The group used for practice teaching in this early experi¬ 
ence is a class of elementary students who are not regularly taking 


54 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

agriculture, but are called together at extra times for lessons in 
agriculture. The pupil teachers are immediately faced with the 
problem of justifying their work. 

The bulk of the practice teaching which comes in the last year of 
the course offers students a choice between the field of agricultural 
teaching and of extension work. In any case, the practice teaching 
is carried on away from Hampton and under the supervision of, 
and as assistant to, some teacher or county agent with whom cooper¬ 
ative arrangements have been made. 

DOES AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL FARM PAY? 

The school farm (1) supplies food, chiefly vegetables and milk, to 
the school instructors and boarding departments; (2) furnishes 
examples for and laboratory material of a wide variety to all the 
instructors who are teaching in the college agricultural course; (3) 
gives employment, instructive and remunerative, to students in the 
college course at odd hours in the winter and for more time in the 
summer; and (4) provides work, remunerative and also instructive, 
to preparatory students of the institute. 

The treasurer’s reports indicate that the combination of farming 
and teaching of farming has not paid a money profit, except for 
odd seasons or in one special division. There are good reasons, how¬ 
ever, for this failure to secure money profits. 

(1) Constant training of your students costs money. Fourteen 
new milkers, for example, must be initiated at the opening of school 
each fall. Hampton a]so feels bound, even with students who are 
taking work on the form primarily to earn money, to shift Students’ 
work occasionally so as to give proficiency to men in more than one 
line of modern farm practice. 

(2) Where educational and productive activities are inextricably 
interrelated it is impossible fairly to separate the educational and 
productive work. Much of the educational load is usually borne by 
the productive expense account. 

(3) The prices for products which the agricultural school sells 
have been considerably below the current market prices. During 
the financial year 1920-21, for example, milk, eggs, and poultry were 
sold to the teachers and to the boarding departments at $11,000 below 
the market prices. In some institutions, where prices are fixed by a 
business board, there is a tendency not to change prices often or 
during periods of rising prices. The agricultural accounts naturally 
show heavy deficits which should more properly have been borne by 
salary and by boarding department accounts. The Hampton farm, 
however, has paid market prices for the things which it has bought. 

(4) An agricultural school farm must do work which a regulation 
farmer would not feel called upon to do. The agricultural school 


THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 


55 


has also had to bear the expense of caring for buildings which are 
usualty too elaborate for ordinary farm needs. 

There have been other important expense items, such as livery 
service, general upkeep of the farm for esthetic reasons, the showing 
of visitors around, and extra painting—all demanded of an institu¬ 
tional farm. A farmer who was guided by the idea of financial 
returns for his outlay of money probably would not give as much 
attention to some of the items listed above, as is necessarily required 
at an institution like Hampton. The money cost of many expense 
items on the Hampton farm have had to be charged against the 
expense of production. There are good reasons, therefore, why the 
Hampton farm shows and has shown a heavy debit balance. 

The productive expense, however, should include charge for inter¬ 
est on investment and taxes, whenever an attempt is made to compare 
the school farm books with a commercial farmer’s books. 

The experience gained in combining educational and productive 
farm work suggests that it will be worth while to make a careful 
study of this whole matter of farm bookkeeping and educational 
results and then try to adopt a method of accounting for institutional 
farms which will put the farm on as firm a financial basis as possible. 

TO WHAT EXTENT ARE LARGE FARMS NEEDED ? 

There are several reasons for discussing whether or not an institu¬ 
tion like Hampton Institute should operate one or more large farms. 

(1) Food supplies can now be readily bought on local markets. 
Formerly these supplies could not be secured in this manner. 

(2) The agricultural graduates will be faced with the problem of 
intensive farming rather than with the problem of extensive farming. 

(3) The agricultural projects supplant some of the necessity for 
supplying practice work for students. 

It may therefore be questioned whether a very large farm is re¬ 
quired to do the best work in training agriculturists and agricultural ’ 
teachers. 

FAR-REACHING AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK. 

At one of the recent Hampton Institute conferences of negro 
county agents of Virginia 14 of the 22 men agents who were present 
had had training, either in full courses or short courses, at Hampton. 
This illustrates one way in which the agricultural school attempts 
to do extension work. Hampton spreads its ideas through well- 
trained graduates. 

In cooperation with Hampton’s director of extension work much 
help has been given farm men and women by sending from Hampton 
regular agricultural instructors to assist teachers in organizing 
groups in special lines of work. 


56 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


County agents and farmers, to the number of 200 to 250, have 
made annual pilgrimages to Hampton to attend the annual meetings 
of the Hampton. Farmers* Conference. At such meetings lectures 
and demonstrations, in which the instructed as well as the instructors 
participate, have been the means of carrying the Hampton agri¬ 
cultural message to numerous rural communities in Virginia and 
adjoining States. 

SOME AGRICULTURE PROVIDED FOR ALL STUDENTS. 

The founders of the institute emphasizing the importance of 
a thorough understanding of agriculture for all students, whether 
they planned to follow farming as a calling or follow some other 
line of work, made some agriculture compulsory for all students. 
Under General Armstrong’s guidance this work took the form 
of occasional lectures which were designed to give the student an 
appreciation of the physical and chemical sciences in their relation 
to farming. 

Later, however, this work lost the atmosphere of appreciation 
of agriculture and took a more strictly vocational turn. This was 
natural, since the short courses in agriculture were given by teachers 
who were teaching regular agricultural students from a strictly 
vocational viewpoint. 

Students who have chosen another calling should not study how 
to run incubators, how to mix fertilizers, how to make butter, and 
how to spray trees. They could not possibly study all these things 
in a 4-hour course, covering 86 weeks, and get very much training. 
Such students constitute a different problem from the regular, full- 
time students. 

To find out what should be the point of view and content of a 
course for trade or business students should be a matter of special 
study; this Hampton has never adequately done. A study is now 
being made of this problem and, pending results, the academic 
agricultural course is divided into two parts. Each part comes 
four hours a week for one year. 

The first section is for young men and is conducted by the regular 
farm management and economics instructor. It attempts to give 
students an insight into, and appreciation of, the financial and 
business problems which the farmer faces. There is also given a 
little technical instruction in the making of a home garden and 
in the handling of a home poultry flock. 

The second section is for young women, many of whom will be 
called upon to teach nature study, or, as home makers, to manage the 
family garden. Their course consists in planting and caring for a 
garden. This is done on a class basis, but each individual has 


THE TRADE SCHOOL,. 


57 


specialty designated responsibilities. There is also given some con¬ 
sideration of ornamental shrubs and flowers which are suitable for 
home and school grounds, as well as instruction in the handling of 
a home poultry flock. Class work consists mainly in a study of the 
elementary physical and biological problems of soils and of plant 
growth. 

THE TRADE SCHOOL. 

Wilijam Anthony Aery, 

Publication Secretary, Hampton Institute. 

The Armstrong-Slater Memorial Trade School at Hampton 
Institute offers 11 four-year courses to ambitious negro and Indian 
youth and furnishes all-round training for negroes and Indians 
who wish to practice any one of the following trades: (1) Automo¬ 
bile mechanics; (2) blacksmithing; (3) bricklaying and plastering; 
(4) cabinetmaking; (5) carpentry; (6) machine work; (7) paint¬ 
ing; (8) printing; (9) steam fitting and plumbing; (10) tailoring; 
and (11) wheelwrighting. By special arrangement with the director 
of the trade school a student may receive instruction in tinsmithing 
and upholstery. 

The trade school is the result of an evolutionary process which 
may be clearly traced back to the founding of Hampton Institute by 
General Armstrong in 1868. Its daily work touches every phase of 
the institute’s present-day life. 

SECTION I. PRESENT AIMS AND METHODS. 

To-day the construction of Hampton Institute buildings and the 
necessary repairs on 140 buildings are being satisfactorily done by 
student tradesmen. 

STUDENT TRADESMEN CONSTRUCT AND REPAIR BUILDINGS. 

Some years ago, when it became necessary to remodel the princi¬ 
pal’s home, the student tradesmen did the necessary tearing down and 
rebuilding. The tradesmen were happy to have an opportunity of 
doing well what professional builders considered a difficult piece of 
work. 

Later, when the school officers decided to add a second story to 
the trade-school building, the student tradesmen performed the la¬ 
borious and difficult task of raising the heavy roof, with jacks which 
they had built, and of lowering the roof on the newly made walls. 

Then came the days of work which was devoted to finishing the 
interior of this large addition. 



58 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

At another time the trade-school force was called upon to erect a 
$30,000, two-story brick building, now known as “ Clarke Hall ’’— 
the gift of Mrs. Delia S. Clarke in memory of her husband, Charles 
Spears Clarke—and used as a Young Men’s Christian Association 
building, the first negro-student Y. M. C. A. building in the United 
States. 

Contracts were awarded to the trade-school departments and the 
student tradesmen solved the difficult problems of house building, 
including the laying of molded brick on seven-diameter columns, 
the building of flat arches, and the handling of full-size work. 

These tradesmen worked as their predecessors had done at an 
earlier date in building the school’s steam laundry, the domestic 
science and agricultural building, Cleveland Hall, which contains 
a large section of the student’s dining hall and a comfortable dormi¬ 
tory for girls, the large school barn, and in converting the old Hunt¬ 
ington Industrial Works and Pierce Machine Shop into dormitories 
for the use of boys. 

A few years ago Mrs. D. Willis James, of New York, gave Hamp¬ 
ton Institute a sum of money for the construction of an up-to-date, 
four-story, fireproof boys’ dormitory, which would accommodate 
about 175 students. The entire work on this $100,000 building was 
done by Hampton tradesmen. 

TRADE WORK BASED ON FIRM FOUNDATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE. 

Behind the work of putting up new buildings or making necessary 
repairs on old buildings, there is the greater work of equipping negro 
and Indian tradesmen through systematic instruction in the tech¬ 
nical side of their work. 

The carpenter and the cabinetmaker, for example, learn, when they 
enter the technical shop, that they must take good care of the tools 
and machines. The newcomers are taught to work from shop draw¬ 
ings and to strive for accuracy and neatness in a course in joinery. 
They make simple, useful, attractive articles, such as tables, cases, 
stands, and other articles that they can use in their homes. 

The course in joinery through the making of useful articles and 
exercise pieces gives the students practice in the squaring of pieces 
of wood, blocking up ends, sawing to given marks, chiseling, the 
making of joints—butt, miter, lap, mortise and tenon, and dovetail. 

After the boys have learned to do well and on a reduced scale the 
technical work with which every good carpenter should be familiar, 
they then apply their skill and knowledge to the making of that 
which is useful and attractive. 


BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 6 











BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 7 



A. THE ARMSTRONG-SLATER MEMORIAL TRADE SCHOOL. 



B. BRICKLAYING AND PLASTERING. 

A class at work on one of the new buildings. 











THE TRADE SCHOOL. 


59 


STUDENTS EARLY SHOULDER RESPONSIBILITIES. 

The negro or Indian boy who enters the blacksmith shop is im¬ 
mediately put to work at his trade. He is shown how to move about 
his forge in a comfortable, natural manner. Pie is shown how to 
build a fire properly. 

At every turn, the boy is shown not only how to do certain im¬ 
portant trade tasks but he is given the why and wherefore of the 
processes which enter into the blacksmithing trade. The beginner in 
the blacksmith shop, for example, is not merely a shop helper or a 
handy man who mechanically does the striking for another man or 
simply waits on some superior workman. From the start, the black¬ 
smith in the making comes in touch with common-sense, practical 
instruction. He learns his first lessons partly through imitation, for 
shop demonstrations are frequent. He is encouraged to ask questions 
and to work out satisfactory answers. If the task is that of building 
properly a forge fire, the properties of coal, the heating of iron, and 
the control of the blast are questions which receive careful attention. 

REAL CORRELATION PRACTICED. 

In the industrial life of the institute the blacksmith shop does its 
quota of work and helps to develop the latent powers of the student. 
Whenever a wagon is built in the wheelwright shop, it is passed to 
the blacksmiths to have the necessary ironwork properly fitted. The 
axles are welded; the wheels are fitted with tires; and the springs 
are fastened to the wagon gear. The iron which is used on the wagon 
is carefully measured, worked into shape, and properly fitted on the 
body and gear which have been built by the wheelwrights. 

When fire escapes and fire ladders were needed for the dormi¬ 
tories the blacksmiths were called into service. When ornamental 
ironwork was called for in the construction of some of the newer 
school buildings, notably the Y. M. C. A. and the principal’s house, 
the blacksmiths undertook the work. 

The trade-school blacksmiths and wheelwrights do the necessary 
repair work on farm implements and farm wagons which are in 
daily use on the home farm and at “ Shellbanks.” 

BRICKLAYERS AND PLASTERERS. 

The students in the bricklaying and plastering department touch 
the Hampton Institute life at many points. They set boilers in the 
power house; build the bake ovens which are used in the kitchens; 
repair the plastering in the school buildings; make and keep in re¬ 
pair all the granolithic walks; and do the necessary brick, plaster, 
and concrete construction work in connection with the erection of 
new buildings. 

47096°—23-5 


60 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

When one of the largest of the boys’ dormitories was converted 
from an open dormitory into one with inclosed rooms for two and 
three students each, the students in the bricklaying and plastering 
department rendered valuable service. 

STUDENTS BUILD MACHINES AND THEN USE THEM. 

In the trade-school machine shop there are now in daily use ma¬ 
chines worth several thousand dollars which have been built by 
student tradesmen. These machines include a 16-inch turret lathe 
with an 8-foot bed, a 22-inch turret lathe, three drill presses, a speed 
lathe, an emery-grind stand, polishing stands, a twist-drill grinder, 
and a number of special tools for doing the larger and more com¬ 
plicated pieces of work. 

For the institute the machine shop has built and riveted together 
near the power house a large coal-hoisting frame. It has also done 
important repair work on machinery in daily use in the school’s 
steam laundry, in the agricultural department, in the steam, electri¬ 
cal, and ice plants, and in other trade-school shops. 

WORK ON MODERN DORMITORY. 

The work of the students of plumbing and steamfitting the James 
Hall dormitory, as on other large buildings, covered the wide range 
of trade activities included in those trades. 

The students of painting paint buildings, roofs, and porches. 
They paint, varnish, and wax floors. They help preserve screens, 
fences, boats, carriages, wagons, carts, and automobiles. They paint, 
varnish, and stain furniture. They paper and kalsomine rooms. 

STUDENTS HELP THE INSTITUTE TO REACH THE PUBLIC. 

Those who study printing cooperate in producing attractive invita¬ 
tions, programs, and booklets. 

Further opportunity is afforded whenever the school attempts to 
reach the colored rural teachers with helpful information concerning 
industrial subjects, club work for boys and girls, men and women, 
and cooking, sewing, home-making or community-improvement 
methods. 

SALABLE PRODUCTS MADE. 

The student tradesmen, besides doing a great deal of practical 
work for the institute itself, do commercial work which compares 
favorably with that which seasoned journeymen do elsewhere. The 
institute’s treasurer, Frank K. Rogers, in his report for the fiscal 
year ending June 30, 1921, stated that the trade-school sales to the 
institute amounted to $165,815; and to others, $48,729. These figures 
will give some idea of the bulk of operations which are carried on by 
the trade school. 


THE TRADE S€HOOL. 


61 


Commercial work, because of its value to the students in training 
them to measure up to journeyman standards and disinterested com- 
mercial tests, is done in all the trade-school shops. People are glad 
to buy the products, not because they are cheap, but because they are 

good. 

For the blacksmiths and wheelwrights this commercial work in¬ 
cludes the making of railroad and wharf trucks in some 20-odd styles, 
the building and repairing of wagons, as well as a variety of carts 
and wheelbarrows, and the building and repairing of automobile 
bodies for commercial and pleasure cars. 

Attractive andirons, sets of fire tools, fire screens, well-made forg¬ 
ing tools, building forgings, fire escapes, and special, tempered steel 
tools—these are some of the interesting commercial products of the 
Hampton blacksmith shop. 

THE BOY NOT A MERE TOOL. 

The students of mechanic arts build gasoline engines. “ The 
Hampton Institute Gear,” patented bv the instructor in the machine 
shop and turned over to the trade school, is a marine reverse gear, 
which is made, in limited numbers, in sizes ranging from 8 to 60 
horsepower. These gears have been sold for service in boats plying 
on American and foreign waters. 

Since the work in the machine shop, as in all the other trade-school 
departments, has an important educational aspect and is not purely 
commercial, the number of separators, for example, which is built 
annually is arbitrarily limited. The aim of the machine shop, and, 
indeed, of all shops or departments at Hampton, is to use its equip¬ 
ment for the best interest of the boy and not to make the boy a mere 
shop tool. 

TAILORS MARE UNIFORMS AND CIVILIAN CLOTHES. 

Before the introduction of the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps 
unit at Hampton Institute the students in the tailoring department 
made many uniforms for the Hampton cadets.. To-day these tailors 
make citizens’ clothes for the instructors and students, as well as for 
others. They also make tailored suits for ladies, overcoats, dress 
suits, sport suits, and officers’ uniforms. 

Cleaning, pressing, and repair work m also carried on for the 
numerous student and instructional forces. 

MODERN POWER-DRIVEN MACHINES USED BY STUDENT TRADESMEN. 

In the printing department the students handle a large bulk of 
diversified commercial work, ranging from poster printing to the 
production of good-sized pamphlets and books, which requires the 
use of modern power-driven machines. 



62 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

With modern shoe-repairing machinery, students take care of 
the footwear of over 800 boarding students and some 200 Hampton 
Institute workers. These same students do harness repair work for 
the agricultural school. 

In an industrial village, such as Hampton Institute, there must 
be a harmony of interest and policy. When a department needs 
something which the trade school can and should furnish, on account 
of its equipment and personnel, it is most important that the trade 
school should do its share to furnish the product or service which 
is needed. 

In any discussion, therefore, of the commercial work of the 
Hampton Institute trade school, it is only fair to say that the work 
which is done for the institute should be credited to the commercial 
output of the trade school. 

STUDENT TRADESMEN RECEIVE TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

Behind all forms of commercial work, whether directly for the 
institute or indirectly for the general public, there is the problem 
of giving training to student tradesmen in technical work. 

In performing technical exercises and applying fundamental prin¬ 
ciples of carpentry to common forms of construction and repair 
work, the student has to learn the theory and practice of board 
measure and estimates. For example, under the heading of “ Trade 
mathematics,” the carpenters and cabinetmakers learn together in 
the technical carpenter shop the common methods of making calcu¬ 
lations which are involved in trade problems. They are taught to 
apply the fundamental processes of mathematics to such problems 
as figuring the amount and cost of materials which are required for 
specific pieces of work. Here the aims are speed and accuracy. 

Student tradesmen construct in the technical shop full-size door 
and window frames. They learn how to put on the common forms 
of hardware. In all these operations they work from shop draw¬ 
ings. They learn to use the ordinary woodworking machines and 
they also learn how to manage individual electric motors. 

CARPENTRY TAUGHT BY THE PROJECT METHOD. 

One piece of interesting and valuable technical work which has 
commanded considerable notice is a series of dormer windows, built 
by senior tradesmen working in pairs and within set limits as to 
space. The instructor, after explaining to the students the princi¬ 
ples of dormer-window construction, gives each pair of student 
workmen the width of the desired dormer from outside shingle to 
outside shingle and the size of the glass opening. Then he requires 
a rough sketch, a design, a working drawing, and an estimate of the 
material which will be needed to complete the dormer window. 


THE TRADE SCHOOL. 


63 


To do satisfactorily this piece of technical work, the students must 
use their initiative and judgment. The instructor gives no help 
until he is called upon. If in his judgment the students should work 
out their own salvation, he offers nothing more than a suggestion or 
he simply raises one or two questions, the answers to.which may 
help in the solving of the students’ difficulties. 

If a real need arises, the instructor stops to discuss the problem 
with the whole group that is at work on the dormer-window project. 
1 he aim here is to train men to think effectively and save them from 
the weakening effects of too much assistance. 

ROOF-BUILDING MADE A TEST OF TRADE SKILL. 

Another interesting piece of technical work in carpentry, which is 
a stimulating project undertaken by senior tradesmen, is that of 
making a model of a fairly difficult roof, about one-sixth of the full 
size, from an original design and drawing made by a student trades¬ 
man in the drafting room. 

Before he begins his model, the student is given a sheet of paper 
and a steel square. He is then required to find all the lengths and 
cuts of the rafters. He next figures the actual area of the roof, 
which is a neat and worth-while problem in mensuration. He 
makes the necessary allowances for waste. 

The next step is to find the number and the cost of rafters, which 
is a practical application of real trade arithmetic. All this infor¬ 
mation must be furnished to the instructors and approved before 
the student is allowed to get a single stick of lumber. 

When all the preliminary work for his model roof has been done, 
he must then pick out at one selection the right kind of lumber, 
enough and not too much. 

His next step in making the model roof is to cut out all his work 
before he begins to do any nailing. 

THE BLACKSMITH LEARNS HOW TO MAKE HIS TOOLS. 

After the student has learned in the blacksmith shop to make 
his forge fire, he is given a piece of iron about half an inch in di¬ 
ameter and is first required to make a square point on one end. From 
that he passes on to the making of a round point and then a flat 
one. 

Meanwhile, he learns how to handle the blacksmith’s hammer. 
Then, too, he learns more and more about the handling of his forge 
fire. 

After the student has learned how to shape and draw out iron, 
he is given some simple problem in welding. He is then required 
to do work which combines shaping and welding. 


64 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


Step by step, the student blacksmith turns out, according to speci¬ 
fications and blue-print drawings, some 70-odd technical exercises 
during liis early period of training. Drawing out iron, making 
staples,, bending rings, making a hook and eye, developing a gate 
hook, fashioning bolts and nuts of various sizes and shapes,-welding 
rings, constructing braces, chain links, square bands, making chisels, 
drills, springs, lathe tools, horseshoes, carriage steps, scrapers—these 
are some of the technical exercises in iron and steel which the black¬ 
smith learns to do. 


THEORY AND GOOD MODERN TRADE PRACTICE COMBINED. 

The course in bricklaying and plastering, as in the other trade 
courses, consists of tasks of graduated difficulty. Students learn 
in the theory room how- to build: a small corner,, consisting of 40 or 
12 courses; how to lay walls in American and other bonds; how to 
raise a wall that must be built to a given line; how to do foundation 
and retaining-wall work; how to construct piers, chimneys, and fire¬ 
places; how to lay off and construct segmental, circular, and ellip¬ 
tical arches. This technical work, which is done indoors, is full 
size and is selected, as far as possible, from some part of an in¬ 
stitute building which is used as a pattern. 

Laying bricks carefully and neatly to a given straight line, plumb¬ 
ing corners accurately, working with one another without friction, 
following blueprints exactly, tackling with enthusiasm difficult re¬ 
pair jobs, getting ready to do things in the work-a-day world by 
doing practical work in a practical way during school days, com¬ 
bining theory and good modern trade practice—these are some of the 
important lessons learned in the technical branch of the bricklaying 
and plastering course. 

While the machinists tradesmen follow a given course of gradu¬ 
ated instruction, there is some leeway 'given to them because con¬ 
siderable attention is paid to repair work. The machine-shop ex¬ 
ercises, which may be given when the right kind of commercial work 
is not available,, may be roughly grouped as follows: Filing to 
line or gauge; chipping, and filing; bolting pieces together; hand- 
tool work; use of calipers and bevel square; handling small forg¬ 
ings; shaper work; turning; use of milling machine and planer.. 
The technical work includes vise work, speed lathe work, drill press 
work, shaper and planer work, lathe work, and milling-machine 
work. Work is done, in most cases, from, shop drawings or 
sketches. 

SHOP TALKS BRING TRADES CLOSE TO LIFE. 

Hampton Institute aims to have the students see their tasks in re¬ 
lation to life as a whole. In the trade-school departments the 


THE TRADE SCHOOL. 


65 


students are given helpful shop talks at least once a week and are 
shown by their instructors how to do those tasks which develop 
both skill and reasoning power. 

The carpenters and cabinetmakers, for example, discuss the uses 
and special purposes of woods; the seasoning and drying of lumber; 
framing joints; the general method of house framing; the sizes 
of timbers for framing purposes; roof framing; lumber estimating; 
hardwood estimating; trade terms and their meanings. 

The bricklayers and plasterers discuss the methods and operations 
involved in brickmaking; the manufacture and use of cement; the 
principles of building construction; and the meaning of important 
trade and technical terms. 

The machinists discuss the handling of machine tools and the 
correct way of using them; gearing up a machine, when the index 
is lost; the handling of lathe tools; the speed of lathes; steam 
pumps; hydraulic rams; taper work; and the screw-thread cal¬ 
culator. 

The tailors discuss the kinds of materials with which they work— 
canvas, haircloth, linings, cotton and woolen goods; methods of 
judging the quality of goods by the texture of the fiber; the costs 
of running a tailoring business; and methods of buying goods and 
tailors’ findings. 

The plumbers and steamfitters discuss the construction and han¬ 
dling of safety valves, pumps, boilers, radiators, piping of various 
materials, and patterns; the use and cost of plumbing materials; 
the relation of plumbing and steamfitting to construction work; 
the relation of sanitary plumbing to good health, both public and 
individual; the essentials of modem mechanics; and the handling 
of fire-fighting apparatus. 

The shop talks bring the trades close to life. The instructors are 
able to have the students in training explain to one another the 
lessons that they have learned; state their own mistakes and prob¬ 
lems ; and ask questions which all the students need to have answered. 

ALL-ROUND TRAINING GIVEN THE TRADESMEN. 

The trade-school program of studies, which is given below, will 
give the student of trade education a bird’s-eye view of the present 
course of study in the Armstrong-Slater memorial trade school. 

TRADE-SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDIES IN 1922-23. 

The figures here given indicate the number of 50-minute periods 
per week. The drill periods are one hour. 

First year \—General mathematics, 5; English, 5; literature, 4; singing, 1; 
military drill, 2; trade subjects, including theory, trade mathematics, draft¬ 
ing, and trade practice, 43. 


66 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


Second year. —General science, 5; English, 5; literature, 4; Bible, 3; singing, 
1; military drill, 3; trade subjects, including theory, trade mathematics, draft¬ 
ing, and trade practice, 43. 

Third year ( one week). —Social science, 5; English, 5 ; general history, 5 ; mil¬ 
itary drill, 3; business procedure, 5; chemistry, 12; singing, 1; current events, 
1; trade technical subjects, including theory, trade mathematics, and draft¬ 
ing, 23. 

Alternate week. —Social science, 5; English, 5; general history, 5; military 
drill, 3; trade practice, 43. 

Fourth year ( one week). —American history, 5; English, 5; literature, 4, 
current events, 1; military drill, 3; physics, 12; trade technical subjects, in¬ 
cluding estimating and specifications, shop management, and drafting, 23. 

Alternate week— American history, 5; English, 5; literature, 4; current 
events, 1; military drill, 3; trade practice, 43. Students in the third year alter¬ 
nate with those who are in the fourth year so that the two groups will not 
have trade practice in the same week. 

TRADESMEN ACTIVE IN STUDENT LIFE. 

The student tradesmen in their small amount of free time, from 5 
until 6 o’clock on five afternoons, from 1 until 6 o’clock on Saturday 
afternoon, and from 9 until 9.45 at night, take active part in the 
institute’s athletic program, in the choir, in the band, in the literary 
and social societies. A keen interest is shown in all the regular 
student activities. 

The tradesmen are paid for their commercial work. During the 
early months of their course students can not expect to earn any 
wages. During the first year of the course students need from $100 
to $160 for their living expenses and other charges. While some 
students are able, after the first year of their trade course, to earn 
enough money with which to meet their necessary expenses, Hamp¬ 
ton does not guarantee students a regular wage. 

Students are carefully graded on their work. The following five- 
point scale is used in rating men every two months for speed, accu¬ 
racy, judgment, initiative, earnestness, neatness, and responsibility 
in their shopwork; A, excellent; B, above average; C, average; D, 
below average; and E, failure. 

SECTION II. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRADE SCHOOL. 

Wrote General Armstrong in the school catalogue of 1870-71: 

This institute should, I think, be polytechnic, growing step by step, adding 
new industries as the old ones shall become established and remunerative, thus 
enlarging the limits of paying labor and increasing the attendance. 

Industrial work was not made self-supporting, however, because it 
was thought unwise to sacrifice training facilities for profits. 


THE TRADE SCHOOL. 


67 


LABOR REQUIRED OF A TT, , 

Labor for the purposes of discipline and instruction has always 
been emphasized at Hampton. The catalogue of 1870-71 states: 

Young men and women, whose parents desire that they shall not be taken out 
of school to work, may, upon payment of $10 per month, attend school without 
interruption, but will nevertheless be required to labor* on Saturdays and at 
such hours as such industries may be assigned them.- 

Through liberal grants made by the Freedmen’s Bureau and dona¬ 
tions from northern friends there was developed in 1871-72 “an 
industrial department for the manufacture of clothing, ” and prac¬ 
tical instruction was given boys and girls in the different varieties 
of sewing machines. In the so-called mechanical course, to which 
reference is made in the catalogue of 1871-72, instruction was also 
given in household industries, in penmanship, in freehand drawing, 
in mechanical drawing, in printing, and in “studies of the normal 
course at discretion.” 


SIMPLICITY OF EQUIPMENT. 

The simplicity and inexpensiveness of the early system of indus¬ 
trial education at Hampton are clearly shown in the case of the print¬ 
ing department. In 1872-73, the first manager, W. J. Butterfield, 
reported that a firm of New York had presented the printing depart¬ 
ment with a hand-stop cylinder press, worth $2,250; that another 
firm had donated nearly $300 worth of type; and that the shop now 
had “ excellent facilities for doing book work, pamphlet, and news¬ 
paper work.” General Armstrong adds the statement that “ the vari¬ 
ous branches of the printing trade are taught and the Southern 
Worhman is published.” 

In 1874 General Armstrong recommended “ that the material of 
the barracks [old hospital barracks that once served the sick and 
wounded at Camp Hamilton], formerly used as the girls’ quarters, be 
used in building a shop for students who are learning trades.” 

DEVELOPMENT OF WORK SYSTEM. 

The work system developed rapidly. In 187A-75 General Arm¬ 
strong reported the following figures: 

Boys at ivork. —Farm, 90; printing office, 3; painters, 3; carpenters, 4; coop¬ 
ers, 3; shoemakers, 3; janitors, 4; office duty, 2; mail carriers, 2; police and 
general duty, 6; day scholars on orderly duty, 19; teaching, 2. 

Girls at work. —Industrial room, 72; housework, 6; day scholars with no 
work, 11. 

In these figures are found the beginnings of some important depart¬ 
ments of work. 


68 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


TWO THEORIES UNDERLIE THE MANUAL-LABOR SYSTEM. 

Wrote General Armstrong in 187G: 

Whenever a manual-labor system is attempted, it should be carefully adjusted 
to the demands of scientific and practical education. The question at once 
arises what this manual labor should be. There are two theories, of which the 
first is that its entire aim should be to give the means to students of supporting 
themselves, that a profitable farm on a very large scale should enable a large 
numbers of students to support themselves by agriculture and that workshops 
on a large scale for the manufacture of some simple fabrics of universal con¬ 
sumption should enable a large number of students to support themselves by 
mechanic arts; that in both these cases the main theory should be self-support¬ 
ing industry and not educational industry. 

The second theory is that the primary object of the manual labor in both 
departments should be educational; that is, that the work should be first of ail 
done with a view to perfect the student in the best processes and make him 
scientifically and practically a first-class agriculturist and mechanic. 

While the first of these theories may at times be desirable, the second is 
essential. 

Hampton’s industrial system in 1878. 

By 1878 the following industries, in which boys and girls were 
employed, were well under way at Hampton Institute: 

The farm, with bone grinding, grist mill, soap making, blacksmith’s shop, 
butcher’s shop, and milk dairy; the engineer’s department, with knitting 
machines, broom shop, shop for iron work, rag-carpet weaving, and carpenter 
shop; girls’ industrial department, for making and mending garments, and 
learning to sew by hand and machine; and household work, including washing, 
ironing, table duty, and cooking lessons. 

The work system figures for 1878-79 follows: 

Boys at work. —Farm, 64; Indian training shop, 40; day scholars on orderly 
duty, 19; waiters, 18; knitting room, 15; general duty, 14; janitors, 11; 
laundry, 8; carpenters, 5; engineers’ department, 5; office duty, 5; shoemakers, 
3; blacksmiths, 3; employed by teachers, 3; brickmakers, 2; mail carrier 1; 
greenhouse, 1; painter, 1; tailor, 1; harness maker, 1; weaving rag carpet, 1. 

Girls at work. —Housework, 78; industrial room, 39; laundry, 34; day 
scholars with no work, 21; knitting room, 2. 

A plan was worked out for giving students work which has disci¬ 
plinary and educational value. General Armstrong could honestly 
say 

Give us the workshops and we will send men out of them. If the friends 
of Hampton are ready to pay the increased cost of giving a practical educa¬ 
tion, by training both hand and head, the work can be ddne here and the student 
will be fittted for life far better than he would be without that drill. 

In 1879-80 General Armstrong wrote: 

Able-bodied, quick, and reliable young men without money and eager for an 
education are encouraged to apply for admission on the following terms: To 
work steadily an entire year in the school sawmill and woodworking factory 
or on the farm, studing two hours every night. Wages, from $8 to $10 a 


THE TRADE SCHOOL. 


69 


month, according to capacity and merit. Earnings to be saved for future 
scliooL expenses, excepting,, say, $3 a month for clothing. Such students are 
taken on a three months’ probation to test both bodily and mental capacity. 
One of good mental and working powers and economical habits can readily fit 
himself for the junior class of the school by a year’s night study and enter it 
with about $100 to his credit. * * * The object of this offer is to make 

tliis class of students better workmen and secure them an education; not for 
them to make money, though very rarely could or would they elsewhere save 
as much in the same time. 


HUNTINGTON INDUSTRIAL WORKS FOUNDED. 

General Armstrong reported in 1879 that a workshop had been 
commenced. He made a plea for $12,000 to complete it. He also 
announced the gift of a new and improved 60-horsepower engine, 
with boiler, valued at $4,000. He stated that the building would be 
a two-story frame structure on a brick basement, 140 by 50 feet, 
which would require 200,000 bricks—all to be made on the institute’s 
grounds, mostly by student labor. He also referred to the need of 
receiving $6,000 at once to install a sawmill which could be used to 
saw logs into usable lumber for the upper part of the new workshop. 

The sawmill, according to report in 1880, had to remain idle about 
one-fourth of the time on account of the lack, of capital with which 
to purchase an adequate supply of logs. From September, 1879, 
to June, 1880, 15 labor students and a good manager had sawed 
1,200,000 feet of lumber which the school used or sold at good prices. 

On the temporarily covered brick foundation, about 11 feet higlq 
another story, which was about 16 feet high, was erected and sup¬ 
plied with wood-working machinery to produce building material 
of every kind. The cost of the building and machinery at $15,000 
was assumed by Collis P. Huntington, of New York, “as a contri¬ 
bution for the benefit of the colored race.” 

These details have been given to show the step-by-step process by 
which the so-called Huntington industrial works at Hampton grew. 

WORK CARRIED ON FOR STUDENTS’ BENEFIT. 

At this early stage of industrial education at Hampton there was 
no sharp differentiation of organization. In 1881, for example, 59 
young men were at work all day in the Huntington industrial works, 
in the knitting room, and in other industries. These students studied 
two hours each evening. Eight students in the engineer’s depart¬ 
ment did nearly all the gas and steam fitting and the ironwork of 
the school. Brickmakingi, wheelwrighting, and blacksmithing were 
under the care of the farm manager who employed 10 students for 
this trade work. Tire farm manager also directed the brickmaking 
at the rate of 500,000 bricks per year. This work, however, was 


70 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

done chiefly by “ outside hands.” The printing office employed one 
negro and two Indian students and five ex-students, two of whom 
were girls. 

INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT GROWS. 

In 1882 a new building was completed, which was the gift of Mrs. 
Valeria Stone, of Malden, Mass. This building provided accommo¬ 
dations for the following departments or shops: (1) Printing office, 
to which a small bindery had been added; (2) knitting room; (3) 
shoe factory; and (4) girls’ industrial room and tailoring establish¬ 
ment. 

Again in 1882 General Armstrong announced that Moses Pierce 
had offered $4,000 for a new, two-story brick workshop, 60 by 40 
feet, in which a bone mill and gristmill could be placed to great 
advantage. This item of equipment was nearly completed in 1883. 

HAMPTON INDIANS WORK FOR UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 

For the Indians, General Armstrong made a plea in 1882 for “ a 
building to contain a shoe factory and repair shop, a harness shop, 
a tin shop, a blacksmith and wheelwright shop, substantially built,” 
which would cost $5,500. He announced that $1,750 had already 
been subscribed. A little later General Armstrong reported that 
the Indian workshop was making for the Indian Service in Wash¬ 
ington, to be used in the West, 2,000 pairs of shoes and 70 sets of 
double plow harness. 

TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION BEGINS IN 1S86. 

In 1886 General Armstrong made the first mention of a technical 
school. He said: 

With a grant of $1,000 from the Slater fund * * * a shop for technical 

training in the use of carpenter’s tools was opened in March last [18S6] 

* * * Ten benches are fitted up completely with carpenter’s tools. Lessons 

of 21 hours are given to classes of from 6 to 10, including both young men and 
women. * * * The entire senior class of 15 has two weekly lessons. 

* * * All are taught the use of the hammer, the plane, the saw, and the 

chisel; also the simple principles of housebuilding and how to make useful 
articles for school use. 

EXPANSION OF TECHNICAL COURSES. 

In 1892 the school catalogue announced that three-year courses 
in carpentry and woodworking, harnessmaking, shoemaking, wheel- 
wrighting, blacksmithing, tinsmithing, housepainting, printing, 
tailoring, steam engineering, gasfitting, and the rudiments of the 
machinist’s trade were being taught on the apprenticeship basis. 


THE TRADE SCHOOL. 


71 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS AND LEADERS. 

The second period of industrial training opened in 1893 and 
closed with Doctor Frissell’s death in 1917. 

In order that the trade teaching might be more thoroughly organized, a 
one-story building was erected in 1896, making provision for technical in¬ 
struction in nine trades, the practical work in the various trades being still 
carried on at that time in separate shops. 

In 1894 the industrial work was divided into three classes: (1) 
Technical work, the purpose of which was “ to open the minds of 
the students in as many directions as possible ” and “ to give a varied 
and reasonable degree of skill in the use of different kinds of tools,” 
including instruction in housework and in domestic training; (2) 
regular trade work, the purpose of which was primarily the education 
of the student and secondarily the support of the student, including, 
for girls, three-year courses in tailoring, shirt making, and dressmak¬ 
ing,” and for boys three-year courses in “ agriculture, blacksmitliing, 
carpentry, harness making, painting, printing, planing-machine 
work, shoemaking, tailoring, and wheelwrighting ”; and (3) 
those industries which, although of educational value, had “ for their 
chief object the self-support of the student” including “ housework, 
laundry work, sewing and mending, machine knitting, tinning, steam 
sawing, and farming.” 

TRADES AND INDUSTRIES IN THE 1896 PROGRAM. 

In 1896 an important forward step was made. A system of train¬ 
ing in the various trades—“ carpentry, blacksmitliing^ bricklaying 
and plastering, wheelwrighting, painting, and machinist trades ”— 
was introduced as a preparation for entrance to the industries in 
which there was a regular course of instruction covering from one to 
three years. 

It was discovered that those who took the trade work should have 
a good educational foundation. Doctor Frissell had said in 1895: 

Only those have been allowed to take trades who passed a certain grade 
in their entrance examination. The preference was given to those who passed 
the best examination. The result has been that many bright students have 
entered the shops, spending all day at their work and going to school at night. 

In 1895 the first trade certificates were awarded. Previous to that 
time a large number of students had finished trade courses but had 
not received this recognition. 

As a result of this training, shops where young colored men have 
had an opportunity to learn trades were started in many of the 
country districts of Virginia and other Southern States by Hampton 
graduates. A number of State schools in the South were also sup¬ 
plied with industrial teachers. But it was evident that in order to 


72 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


supply the demand in furnishing teachers of trades, the young people 
should be given more of the principles that underlie mechanical work. 

DR. FRISSELL, CRKTielZEM< INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM. 

In 1896 Doctor Frissell called the trustees’ attention to the fact 
that r 

Tlie system of trade teaching which has prevailed! at Hampton,, though the 
only one practicable in the earlier days, was becoming expensive, both as re¬ 
gards* time and money. 

Boys and girls- have been placed in our shops immediately upon their en¬ 
trance into the school; Many of them have not hail sufficient intelligence to 
make good tradesmen, ©titers were found;, fufiter months of trial; to: be possessed 
of little mechanical skill.. In this way much time and. labor have been ex¬ 
pended by foremen of the shops- upon students who were not able to appre¬ 
ciate or make use of the instruction given. 

In order to enable the colored people more fully to enter the 
trades in the South, Dr. Frissell and his associates cooperated with 
the trustees of the John F. Slater fund to secure money for a modern 
trades building. 

In November, 1896,. the Armstrong-Slater memorial trade school 
building was opened. It marked a most important epoch in the 
school’s history, as it was an advanced step toward higher train¬ 
ing in the mechanic arts for the Indian and the negm 

In 1896 the aim of the trade school was to devote itself entirely 
to instruction without regard to production, giving to the young 
people the principles of different trades as rapidly as possible, and 
then sending them into the school shops to obtain the knowledge of 
practical work which will be necessary to prepare them thoroughly 
to be trade instructors, foremen, and leaders in industry.. 

In 1896-97 the following 13 three-year trade courses were offered: 
u Carpentry and joinery; bricklaying and plastering; machine work; 
blacksmithing; wheelwrighting; painting; cabinetwork; tinsmith- 
ing; steam engineering: tailoring; shoemaking; harnessmaking and 
carriage trimming; printing^; and a two-year course in mechani¬ 
cal drawing. A three-grade course in dressmaking was also out¬ 
lined. 

DIVISION OF TIME. 

In 1896^-97 the division of time m the trade courses was; as follows: 
The first year was spent in the trade school and the other two years 
were spent in the industries. A part of the day was given to “ aea~ 
demic study,, including mathematics,, physics, and English,” and a 
part was given t®> mechanical and free-hand drawing. The term 
lasted 10 months;. After the students entered the industries they re¬ 
ceived wages for full-time work and* attended night school. Thus 
the apprenticeship: system gave way to the systematic training. 


THE TRADE SCHOOL. 


7a 


BETTEB-TR AINED MEN SELECTED FOR TRADE EDUCATION. 

There was a steady development in the direction of selecting a 
better-trained group for the expensive trade instruction. In 1898 
Doctor Frissell stated: 

It is intended that no student shall be admitted to the trade school until 
he has demonstrated in the manual-training- department his aptitude for a 
trade and has sufficient knowledge of English, mathematics,, and physics to 
make his work intelligent. 

The school’s productive industries, which were formerly used as the stepping- 
stone to the academic department, are to be thrown open now only to those who 
have finished a year in the trade school and will thus afford them practice in 
actual business with work for the market. 

As a result a number of students were given the opportunity of 
working in wood and iron at tlie Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry 
Dock Co.’s plant, and such good work was done that officers of the 
shipyard asked for others similarly trained. 

Men who had been sent to contractors in Portsmouth and Farm- 
ville for work in brick and wood had made correspondingly good 
records. 

Referring to the rising standard for admission to the trade school, 
Doctor Frissell said in 1900: 

It cam be readily seen that the broader a student’s previous intellectual 
training, the greater his ability to master the geometrical problems underlying 
mechanical drawing and the complicated details that belong to the making of 

contracts. 

In 1901 Doctor Frissell also said: 

In all the trades, instruction is made the prominent feature, and only so 
much of productive industry is allowed as will help the students to gain a 
practical knowledge of the trade. 

The trade “ clinic ” was introduced in 1901. It was not an unusual 
sight—and is not to-day—•“ to see a body of students discussing, the 
best method of 4 operating ’ upon a broken carriage or piece of furni¬ 
ture.” This idea was later applied to all the trade departments. 

TRADE WORK AND ACADEMIC STUDIES CORRELATED. 

In 1901 the finishing class in carpentry took for half the year 
one-half day each at bricklaying, painting, and tinsmithing, four 
hours at wood turning, and six hours at designing small houses and 
estimating the material for them. The remainder of the time each 
week was spent at the carpenter’s bench. 

It was also urged that the larger number of graduates ought to combine 
farming and the teaching of a country public school with the practice of a 
trade:—carpentry, blacksmithimg, wheelwrighting, painting, or a combination of 
two or more of tliesa Some knowledge of bricklaying, tinning, and harness- 
making is. also desirable.. 


74 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


The correlation of trade-school work and academic studies was 
also thoroughly worked out and carried into everyday school prac¬ 
tice. The problems in arithmetic are taken from the shops and the 
farm. The work in English has to do largely with the everyday 
experiences of the students. Agriculture and geography are closely 
connected. The art instruction is related to the work of the manual¬ 
training courses. 

COMPARISON OF METHODS. 

By 1904 Doctor Frissell noted that: 

After careful comparison of a system in which work in the shop is placed 
first, and academic studies made subsidiary, and one in which academic instruc¬ 
tion is put first, and handwork is made secondary, the whole corps of Hampton 
teachers agree that the former system results in a greater gain in character, 
in initiative, and in intellectual force. 

In 1904 nearly three-fourth of all the boys at Hampton Institute 
were taking trades, were devoting a large part of the day to the 
work of the hands, and were giving their evenings to study and class¬ 
room work, according to Doctor Frissell. In 1894 the mass of the 
students at Hampton were in the day school and only a small num¬ 
ber were enrolled as trade students. 

In 1910 Doctor Frissell reported that a trade' certificate was not 
given to any student who had not completed the equivalent of a 
grammar-school course. He said: 

The demand for trades is so great, that it has been possible gradually to 
raise the entrance requirements and they are to-day higher for the trade 
school than for the academic department. 


THE TRADE SCHOOL AND WAR SERVICE. 


The service rendered by Hampton Institute during the World War 
covered many fields. Doctor Phenix reports that the trade-school 
students— 

have repaired gas engines for submarine chasers and done other work for the 
United States Navy; made special instruments for the Coast Artillery, trucks 
for the embarkation camps, and 177 pieces of furniture for the drafting rooms 
at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co.; and done special machine 
work for the airplanes at Langley Field, as well as some motor work for the 
embarkation camps. 

In order to develop the industrial resources of the Nation, there 
were trained in cooperation with the War Department’s committee 
on education and special training, 1,027 “ fighting mechanics,” who 
were distributed among 14 classes, as follows: 


Automobile mechanics_ 96 

Army clerks_ 60 

Blacksmiths_ 20 


Carpenters_ 97 

Electric wiremen_ 91 

Horseshoers_106 









BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 8 

























BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 9 



A. STUDYING THE DESIGNS OF ROOFS. 

Students make model roofs about one-sixth of full size, based on accurate drawings. 































THE TRADE SCHOOL. 


75 


Leather workers _ is 

Machinists_ 56 

Pipe fitters_ 53 

Radio operators_ 67 


Telegraphers___ 30 

Truck drivers_272 

jWheelwrights_ 47 

Cooks_ 14 


The present trade-school schedule allots to class work during the four-year 
course, including military instruction and drill, about 3,500 hours; to direct 
trade work—that is, actual practice with one’s hands—about 4,000 hours. A 
little over 20 years ago [about 1897] the trade student spent about 1,100 
hours in class work and 7,000 in manual practice. 


FOUE-YEAE EEVISED CUEEICULUM ADOPTED IN 1921. 

In 1921 a revised curriculum of four years in length was adopted 
with a view to securing a better time allotment of trade practice and 
classroom study. 

The old Hampton principle that “ graduates of the trade school 
should have a general preparation for useful citizenship and com¬ 
munity leadership ” was reaffirmed. 

It was also declared that— 

Such [civic] training in the trade school should be practically equivalent to 
the studies comprised in the minimum requirement of 12 units prescribed for 
admission to the various advanced courses, the trade practice in the trade 
school being considered equivalent to the 8 elective units which academic 
students must add who are going on to these other schools [of the institute]. 

ADMISSION EEQUIEEMENTS TO TEADE SCHOOL IN 1922-23. 

In 1922 the admission requirements to the Hampton Institute 
trade school covered the following points: Applicants must be 16 
years of age or over. They must be of good moral character and 
show “ earnestness of purpose, honesty, faithfulness, and persistent 
effort.” They must also be in good health. Since the trade school is 
of high-school or secondary grade, applicants must “ possess good 
natural ability and have obtained an elementary education. Hamp¬ 
ton allows full credit for work satisfactorily completed elsewhere as 
far as that work is equivalent to the Hampton courses.” As for 
examinations, “ every new student is required to pass a physical and 
medical examination and one of the standard intelligence tests. The 
fitness of a new student is also determined in one or all of the fol¬ 
lowing ways: The recommendation of a former teacher, special 
examinations, and trial in class work.” 

TEADE-SCHOOL ENEOLLMENT. 

The trade-school enrollment which is given below should be 
studied in the light of the evolution of Hampton Institute as a whole 


47096°—23-6 












76 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


and of the trade school as a special unit or organ in this general 
process of development. 

A careful study of the history of the trade school will show that 
as the negro and Indian schools improved the entrance requirements 
were made more exacting; that as the students were able to do more 
academic work they were required to do more and better academic 
work; that as the life at Hampton Institute became more complex 
the trade-school students were made to share the burdens of this 
complex organization; and that as Hampton was able to give its 
students better equipment and instruction the trade-school students 
always got their fair share of Hampton’s added equipment and 
teaching personnel. 

Trade-school enrollment. 


Year. 

Total 

enroll¬ 

ment, 

full 

trade 

classes. 

First- 

year 

class. 

Second- 

year 

class. 

Third- 

year 

class. 

Fourth- 

year 

class. 

Unclas¬ 

sified 

class. 

Special 

class. 

Work- 

year 

class. 

Short- 

course 

class. 

Train¬ 
ing of. 
veter¬ 
ans. 

Total. 

1902-3. 

164 






• 





1906-7. 

248 











1907-8. 

250 

97 

86 

67 



28 




278 

1911-12. 

208 

86 

67 

55 



35 

6 



249 

1915-16_ 

160 

60 

36 

64 


18 

7 

17 



202 

1919-20. 

141 

68 

33 

21 

19 

5 

2 

18 

12 

39 

212 

1921-22. 

193 

54 

71 

45 

23 

3 

2 

10 

10 

21 

239 


OUTLOOK FOR TRAINED MEN. 

Tradesmen have little trouble in obtaining work in the South where skilled 
colored workers are employed in large numbers by many white corporations, 
notably by the railroad shops, navy yards, and Newport News Shipbuilding & 
Dry Dock Co. They find employment also in increasing numbers with the 
many negro development companies recently organized. 

A number of men are foremen and instructors in the leading industrial 
schools of the South. Many others have shops of their own, often employing 
a number of assistants. Many tradesmen have built attractive houses for 
themselves or their parents. Several are successful contractors. One, a 
bricklayer, who is his own architect, has recently contracted for buildings 
aggregating in cost $211,000. 

OCCUPATIONS ANALYSIS OF HAMPTON TRADESMEN-. 

Between 1895 and 1917 trade certificates were issued to 724 men 
(negroes, 687, and Indians, 37). Of this number 311 were graduates 
(negroes, 296, and Indians, 15) and 413 were ex-students (negroes, 
391, and Indians, 22). 

The details, which are here given, have been prepared by Miss 
M. J. Sherman, who is in charge of the record office. 































THE TRADE SCHOOL.. 


77 


Men holding trade certificates and Hampton diplomas > ifrsned 1895-1921. 


[Figures in italics refer to Indians.] 



Trade instructors. 

Working at trade. 

Other occupations. 

Students. 


Trade- 
school 
certifi¬ 
cates and 
Hamp¬ 
ton di¬ 
plomas. 

Trade- 

sehool 

certifi¬ 

cates 

only. 

Trade- 
school 
certifi¬ 
cates and 
Hamp¬ 
ton di¬ 
plomas. 

Trade- 

school 

certifi¬ 

cates 

only. 

Trade- 
school 
certifi¬ 
cates and 
Hamp¬ 
ton di¬ 
plomas. 

Trade- 

school 

certifi¬ 

cates 

only. 

Trade- 
school 
certifi¬ 
cates and 
Hamp¬ 
ton di¬ 
plomas. 

Trade- 

sdhool 

certifi¬ 

cates 

only. 

Blacksmi thing. 

Bricklaying and 

4 

2 

6 

22 

2-13 

1-17 

2 


plastering... 

5 

0 

22 

23 

24 

2-12 

5 


Cabinetmaking. 

4 

1 

0 

1 

3 

1 

0 


Carpentry. 

34 

6 

3-34 

2-38 

2-26- 

3-16 

3 


Harnessmaking. 

0 

1 

1 

0 

1-0 

0 

0 


Machine work.. 

3 

0 

3-10 

2-4 

1-5 

3-9 

1 


Painting.. 

1 

0 

2. 

5 

8 

6 

0 


Printing.. 

4 

0 

1 - 6 

1-2 

1-8 

6 

6 


Shoemaking. 

Steamfitting 

2 

0 

3 

4 

4 

6 

0 


and plumbing. 

1 

0 

10 

1-11 

8 

3-9 

0 


Tailoring. 

5 

1 

1-14 

1-29 

9 

13 

2 


Tinsmi thing. 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 


Upholstering.. 

Wheelwrighting. 

Woodworking ma¬ 

0 

3 

1 

1 

1 

2 

0 

6 

2 

10 

1-1 

19 

0 

0 


chinery . 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 


Total. 

66 

13 

S-112 

7-146 

7-122 

13-115 

19 



0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 


Many tradesmen who have been classified under “ other occupa¬ 
tions ” are engaged in valuable work for white and for colored 
people. This group includes two assistant commandants* an ath¬ 
letic director, and a bookkeeper at Hampton Institute; an assistant 
commandant, an athletic director, and a bookkeeper at Tuskegee 
Institute ; the principal of the Negro Manual-Labor School in Han¬ 
over County, Ya.; the director of agriculture at Biddle University, 
Raleigh, N. C.; the field secretary of the Negro Organization So¬ 
ciety of Virginia; the secretary of the African Educational Com¬ 
mission, which, was organized with the cooperation of the Phelps- 
Stokes fund of New York; county and district; farai-demonstration 
agents- supervisors and principals of county training schools; man¬ 
ual-training and grade schools; field workers for community serv¬ 
ice; African missionaries; farmers; postal clerks; professional men, 
such as ministers, physicians, lawyers, dentists, and teachers; and 
business men, such as real estate dealers, insurance agents, bankers, 
and undertakers. 

CONTBXBUTION- TO EDUCATION, 

The trade school demonstrated that (1) negroes and Indians, when 
given an opportunity and good training, can do first-class trade 
work and can take responsible positions of ; leadership in community 
life; (2) it has developed methods of industrial training which can 
be adapted to the needs of all classes; (3) it has related industrial 

































78 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

work to the problems and needs of everyday life in a busy com¬ 
munity; (4) it lias produced goods which can and do meet com¬ 
mercial standards; and (5) has given students a compelling sense 
of service. 


THE HOME-ECONOMICS SCHOOL. 

Carrie Alberta Lyford, 

Director, Home-Economics School, Hampton Institute. 

The girls’ work at Hampton dates back to the very beginning of 
the school. From the first days the young women received train¬ 
ing in household duties. In the industrial rooms or women’s labor 
department, which opened in 1868 and continued through several 
years, they were offered the opportunity to earn money to defray 
their expenses while at school. 

The following extract, taken from the catalogue for 1875, ex¬ 
presses the spirit of the girls’ work: 

The young women of the middle and senior class are instructed in the art 
of bread making and of plain cooking, and all the girls do housework, wash¬ 
ing, and ironing throughout the course. Their labor is under careful super¬ 
vision. The workrooms of all kinds are as pleasant as any in the institution; 
the dignity of labor is thus recognized; it is not and can not be regarded as 
in the least degrading to or unworthy of those who are in a course of study. 

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF LIVING TAUGHT. 

With all the facilities of the school at the disposal of students, 
the young women have had a particularly favorable opportunity 
for receiving training in the arts of housekeeping. Under the care¬ 
ful and able supervision of the conscientious teachers, who real¬ 
ized the lack of training in the fundamentals of decent living that 
has existed among the negroes in the past, the girls have been 
trained in the furnishing and care of their rooms, in their personal 
habits, in their choice of dress and in its care, and in the perform¬ 
ance of all the duties involved in the maintenance of the home. 

The dormitories and the sewing rooms have been treated as rich 
laboratories from which lessons of helpfulness have constantly been 
drawn, and the washboard has been regarded as much a real part of 
the educational equipment as the blackboard. 

Composure in the preparation and serving of meals has been as 
much commended as composure on the commencement platform. 

COURSES ADAPTED TO STUDENTS’ NEEDS. 

With the erection of the domestic-science building in 1898, house¬ 
hold arts became a recognized course in the school curriculum, and 
since that time organized courses in cooking and sewing have been 



THE HOME-ECONOMICS SCHOOL. 


79 


regularly offered. These courses have always been carefully planned 
to meet the needs of the type of student which they are to serve and 
variations from prescribed courses in other secondary schools have 
been made without compunctions. 

Throughout the four years the girls have devoted four hours a 
week to either cooking or sewing, each subject occupying four con¬ 
secutive months. The cooking course has been planned to include 
nutrition and all of general cooking needed in the average home, 
with a special consideration of southern conditions, particularly of 
the homes from which the girls come. 

The class work has made possible the giving of lessons in house¬ 
wifery that are as fundamental for the improvement of home con¬ 
ditions as the work in cooking. 

The lessons in sewing have included the making of personal gar¬ 
ments and household articles by hand and by machine. Personal 
garments have not been confined to those for the individual girl, 
but are designed to include the clothing necessary for the entire 
family. The clothing for the baby, the man’s shirt, and the adapta¬ 
tion of garments to those of various ages are a recognized part of the 
course. Knowledge of processes and adaptations to conditions have 
been the primary work of the classroom. Practice in the industrial 
sewing room has made possible the acquisition of skill. 

COURSES ORGANIZED AROUND NEEDS OF THE HOME. 

In addition to the usual prescribed courses in cooking and sewing, 
the girls have always been offered a course in household handicrafts, 
which has been planned to provide instruction in many phases of 
handwork necessary to the upkeep and improvement of the home. 
The girl has been taught to make simple conveniences for the home, 
to mend and refinish household furniture, to refinish floors and 
woodwork, to make baskets, and to weave rugs and other house 
furnishings. This course has been popularly known as “gumption 
class,” as it has made possible the acquiring of information necessary 
to everyday living. 

Art courses have formed a definite part of the course. The courses 
have been carefully adjusted to meet the meager background of the 
student and the instruction has helped the girls to an appreciation 
of good line and color in their homes and in their dress. Closely 
correlated as the work has been with the work of the household art 
classes, very tangible results have been apparent. 

GIRLS DO PRACTICAL HOUSEKEEPING. 

The practical housekeeping of the institution has continued to pro-' 
vide*for the girls a large share of their training, for this has always 


80 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAH INSTITUTE. 

been regarded, as a necessary corollary to the classroom work. With 
the beginning of every four months* each girl is assigned to some 
new duty in the institution, these duties including cooking in two 
kitchens, waiting on table in the dining, rooms, care of bedrooms, 
care of halls and baths,-work in the school laundry,- and work in the 
industriM sewing room. 

The busy life in the dormitories has always had the atmosphere 
of a well-conducted classroom in which the value of the work and 
the pleasure of its accomplishment have been recognized.. 

TRAINING OF HOME-ECONOMICS TEACHERS. 

With the advance of negro schools in the South and the higher 
standards of certification, changes in the courses for the girls have 
been as'inevitable as in the courses for the boys. 

Women are needed to teach home economics in the normal schools, 
in the high schools, and in the elementary schools. 

Home-demonstration agents and Jeanes industrial supervisors must 
be trained to carry on the community work in the homes and in the 
rural schools. Hampton has furnished many Jeanes industrial work¬ 
ers and home-economics teachers to the South in the past. Their 
training for the most part was limited to four years of secondary 
work with a term of practice teaching included. Conditions of ele¬ 
mentary education have made progress slow, and students have been 
of mature years before completing this course. 

SPECIAL TWO-YEAR HOME-ECONOMICS COURSE. 

The first step in advance has been the provision of a special two- 
year home-economics normal course to add to the four years of sec¬ 
ondary training that the women may continue to go out to fields of 
usefulness and be able to meet the demands made of them as credit¬ 
ably as did the older women in earlier days. 

Women trained are expected to acquire habits of right living 
through constant practice during the years of residence at the school. 
Lessons taught in the classroom havubeen especially valuable because 
reenforced by the daily practices in the dormitories. Standards 
have been established that have been carried back to the communities 
from which the students have come. Thrift and service have stood 
as the qualities that have preeminently characterized the women who 
have learned, not only how to do their work, but also why they fol¬ 
low certain methods—women who have come to feel that the serv¬ 
ice which they can render to their own people may have both a 
racial and a national value. 


THE HOME-ECONOMICS SCHOOL. 


81 


COURSE PROVIDED FOR MATRONS. 

For several years a course in institutional management for the 
matrons of boarding schools has been maintained at the institute 
during the summer-school session. 

Supervisors and principals have demanded such a course, for they 
have recognized that well-conducted dormitory life is one of the 
fundamental educational forces at the boarding school. Trained 
women to take charge of this work have been lacking and the 
normal schools have not been able to give the special training de¬ 
manded in these positions; A mature woman who has had thorough 
training in home economies and who understands the educational 
possibilities of life in the dormitory is the one most successful in 
meeting the many demands of the position. 

PROBLEM OF IMPROVING DORMITORY LIFE. 

The course has been based on a consideration of the ideals of the 
schools and the part that the dormitory life can play in helping 
to reach these ideals. The purpose back of the work has thus been 
made clear and the work has been put on the high plane where it 
rightfully belongs. 

All of the activities and industries necessary to the maintenance 
of dormitory life are treated as practical phases of home-economics 
education, and the performance of all the daily duties is recognized 
as a vital part of the school life. High standards of living can 
thereby be enforced and thoughtful workers trained. 

The economic questions that constantly rise in the boarding 
school are carefully studied, especial consideration being given to 
the problem of food and food service. A well-chosen, economical 
diet is worked out, the proper method of handling the food from 
the time of its purchase in the wholesale market to its service on 
the table being discussed. 

matron’s glass has members from all the southern states. 

During the five years that the course for matrons has been offered, 
the class has been made up of women from all the Southern States. 
Many of the matrons in the class have been women of many years’ 
experience who have been eager to improve their methods of work 
or to develop better methods of administration. 

Others have come to the class with only a meager background 
of experience but with good home-economics training, while some 
have come without training or experience. For this last class tire 
course can do very little more than help them to gain a vision of 
the possibilities in the matron’s field of work and inspire them 


82 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


with a desire to seek the special training which they so much need. 
For the woman who has had experience or training, or both, the 
course has afforded the stimulus of the possibility of growth so nec¬ 
essary to progress, and she has gone back to her work with a widened 
horizon and a new zeal for her task. 


HOME-ECONOMICS SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY IN 1022-23. 

First year .—Principles of education and educational psychology, 5; advanced 
food study and principles of cooking, 6; dressmaking, 6: advanced physiology 
(half year), 4; bacteriology (half year), 4; textiles (half year), 1; historic 
costume (half year), 1; art, 2; household handicrafts, 5; one elective. This 
elective may be selected in consultation with the director from the other 
courses which the institute offers. 

Second year. —One-half year: Training in teaching home economics. One- 
half year: Rural sociology, 5; methods of teaching—foods and cooking, sewing 
and textiles, care of the home, extension courses, 5; history of education, 5; 
tailoring and millinery, 6; art (house furnishing), 2; one elective. 

Electives .—Educational tests and standards, 5; grade methods, 5; principles 
of vocational guidance, 5; school hygiene, 5. 

ALL WORK FOR GIRLS CAREFULLY PLANNED. 

The organization of the girls’ work is carefully planned to utilize 
every phase of their daily living, while in school, as a preparation 
for the work which they are to carry on in after life. Because they 
are being prepared to become home makers, teachers, and leaders in 
their home communities, every girl is given opportunity to perfect 
herself in household arts and in the science of right living in order 
that she may properly conduct a home and inspire others to high 
standards of home making. 

Classes in the home-economics subjects, customarily presented, 
are held throughout the academic course, but these form only a small 
part of the training received, for during the “ work year,” which 
every girl is urged to take and in which a large number are enrolled, 
and on the weekly “ work day,” expected of all students during their 
day school course, every girl is assigned to some form of housework 
which she must pursue until she can perform it with ease. 

Artificial situations are not created for the purpose of giving the 
girls insight into processes with which they should become familiar, 
for all the work which is necessary in the daily conduct of the school 
becomes the field of study of the student, and the control of situations 
under the constantly varying conditions of daily life must be 
mastered. This means careful oversight and requires a large number 
of teachers for the purpose of supervising the training of the girls in 
the proper methods of work. 

The training and development of the students supersede the mere 
accomplishment of the task, necessary as that is to the maintenance 


THE HOME-ECONOMICS SCHOOL. 


83 

of the standard of the institution. The daily life of the school bears 
witness to the success with which the task is accomplished, while 
the useful lives of Hampton’s many women graduates are an ever¬ 
growing testimony to the permanent value of such training. 

DORMITORIES USED AS TRAINING CENTERS. 

In addition to the careful training of the girls in processes that 
must be performed with skill, and the maintenance of dormitories 
that are in every way models of well-kept and systematically regu¬ 
lated dwellings, the performance of the daily or weekly task gives to 
the girls opportunity for the earning of funds that contribute 
towards the expenses of their education. Each task is paid for by 
the hour, the rate of pay being regulated by the proficiency with 
which the task is performed. 

The new student, for example, who is working for the first time in 
the laundry can not earn as much per hour as her neighbor at the 
next iron who may have had several weeks of experience. The girl 
who has been assigned to the kitchen of Holly Tree Inn will require 
many days of training before her services will merit the highest 
hourly pay. Thus, to the interest and pride which a girl feels in the 
work which she is doing, is added the ambition to make her work 
count for as much as possible in the way of income. The ambitious 
girl works hard throughout her years of training. 

It is only as one observes carefully the details of life at Hampton 
that realization comes of the varied types of work in which a girl 
can have training and in which her record must bear a grade. There 
is the institutional work necessary in the conduct of the students’ 
boarding department, with its 800 or more students; the smaller 
kitchen and dining room, with their more complicated service for 
100 teachers; and the dining room at the Holly Tree Inn, with a 
variation in the number of guests from 40 to 100. At the same time 
there is work to be done in the diet kitchen, whether one or a dozen 
are ill. There are the teachers’ bedrooms to be cared for. There are 
cleaning and dusting always, the preparation of rooms for new¬ 
comers, and the mending, repairing, and refurnishing that constant 
wear and tear involve. Not all the sewing is on old garments or on 
old articles of house furnishing, for, as in any well-regulated home, 
there is a constant supply of new furnishings to be cut and hemmed, 
new aprons to be made, and new hangings to be planned. 

THE WORK-YEAR PLAN. 

When a new student begins her work year, she is at once assigned 
to one or two dozen tasks at which she is employed throughout the 
day. During this year she attends night school for two hours in 


84 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

order to perfect herself in those academic subjects which are required 
for entrance into the day school. If she is working in the laundry, 
she will probably continue at her first task there only long enough 
to master it, and then she will, be assigned to other operations. She 
will remain in the laundry for several months in order to acquire 
skill in that work, and then her assignment will be changed to the 
teachers’ kitchen or to some part of the dormitories. 

When her work year is completed she will not yet have secured 
practice in all phases of house work, but after she enters the day 
school, she will continue to give one day a week to practical work 
and such additional time as she desires to give, provided she is con¬ 
sidered physically able. This work will be chosen from among those 
tasks which can be more easily mastered during a short interval and 
in which consecutive daily practice is- not so essential. Thus the girl 
on her work day may be assigned to the industrial sewing room,, to 
the care of the cooking schools, or to the sweeping and dusting of 
the corridors 1 . 

The girl in the day school, however, may be assigned to the work 
of waiting on table three times daily, or to the care of a teacher’s 
room. Thus, every girl in school has the opportunity to work in 
these various departments whether or not she has passed through the 
work year. 

In addition to the work for which they are paid, the girls have 
their own rooms to care for. These must be kept in orderly con¬ 
dition, at all times ready for inspection. The cleaning is regularly 
and systematically done, and frequent inspections insure its thorough¬ 
ness. 

The capacity of a girl to perform her task and to develop in her 
work is carefully considered when assignments are made. The girl 
who enters school quite untrained in not ready to take up the taxing 
work of table service until she has acquired control and the ability 
to consider the comfort of others. A new girl will have oppor¬ 
tunity to serve as an understudy to an old girl who has already 
mastered her task; and at the beginning of the year two girls will 
be seen working quietly together, one as student, the other as teacher, 
until the student is able to carry her work alone. Mistakes are made 
and perfection in execution is not expected in these early days of 
training, but a willing spirit and steady growth are made the basis 
for judging the new girl during her early days of trial and error. 

GIRLS OBTAIN ALL-ROUND TRAINING. 

The work year was established as a feature of the course at a time 
when the people of the country were sadly in need of learning the 
dignity of labor. Few colored people had funds with which to 


THE BTJSHTESS SCHOOL. 


85 


secuEB an education. Tlie work year lias helped Hampton girls to 
learn the joy that lies in manual labor well performed and at the 
same time has enabled, them to continue the education for which, 
their opportunities have been all too few. It lias proved the basis 
of their education in home economics* and its value is felt to be as 
great, from an educational standpoint, as when it was established 
over 5.0 years ago. 

The girl is-neither exploited in the interests of the institution nor 
is her training narrowly restricted to preparation for a trade or for 
service. Her academic work is enriched by a background of experi¬ 
ence that is seldom available to a. student while in school. The well- 
rounded cycle of duties required other and the cooperative spirit in 
which they must be performed help to prepare her for future duties 
in home and community. 

A system of vocational education so carefully supervised, in which 
there is such a frequent change of work from; one task to the other, 
can only be maintained at considerable expense. Justification of 
such expense can be found only in the work that the Hampton 
student is able to carry on after she has completed her training*. 
The young woman goes back to her own community to carry to hun¬ 
dreds of other lives those ideals of industry and service which she 
has learned to treasure. Higher standards of living are developed 
throughout a community to which such a worker comes, and im¬ 
proved home conditions make possible a stronger, wiser, and happier 
race of people. The contribution of such, work to national service is 
incalculable. 


THE BUSINESS SCHOOL. 

Ethel 0 . Buck man, 

Acting 1 Director, Business School, Hampton Institute. 

Business appeals to many negroes who have saved a few hundred 
or a thousand dollars. Many negroes have started within the past 
few years various kinds of business enterprises. Many of these men 
and women have neither training nor experience. They have great 
ambition and some money. They realize their limitations and are 
constantly turning to schools like Hampton and Tuskegee and are 
asking for trained; helpers. Many kinds of positions are open to 
colored men and women who are prepared to take advantage of 
them. In order to answer these calls Hampton has* recently extended 
the business course two years beyond high-school grade. 

The specific problem of the present business school is to organize 
a course of study which, conscientiously carried out, will provide 



86 HAMPTON NORMAL. AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

thorough technical training for those who occupy positions of re¬ 
sponsibility, along with a thorough appreciation of social and civic 
duties and the ability to bring sound reason and judgment to the 
interpretation of economic problems. 

As Hampton Institute is in itself a complex business organization 
students are not only given an opportunity to observe the conduct of 
this organization but they are also allowed to take an active pait in 
its offices, thus securing at first hand an experience which will add 
materially to their power. 

During one quarter of the second year of the course the students 
are sent out to gain, under supervision, actual business experiences in 
near-by towns and cities or to give them an opportunity to prepare 
for teaching positions. 

For admission to the business school, the applicant must have 
completed not less than 15 units of secondary-school work. The 
completion of the academy course at Hampton, or of four years in a 
good high school elsewhere, should enable one to meet the require¬ 
ments for admission to this school. Applicants from other schools 
who wish to be admitted without examination must furnish complete 
records of their secondary-school work. 

The academy offers, by means of elective subjects, opportunity to 
prepare directly for the business school. IVIost of the business sub¬ 
jects usually offered in high-school commercial courses are elective 
in the second, third, and fourth years. 

It is necessary that students who take up accounting should be 
well grounded in elementary bookkeeping and that those who desire 
to take advanced secretarial work should be fairly proficient in short¬ 
hand and typewriting. 

Graduates or former students of Hampton or of other schools who 
wish to continue their studies in order to fit themselves for more 
responsible positions are admitted to regular classes, provided they 
are qualified to profit by the work. Special students are given full 
opportunity to take up such work as will materially assist them in 
their business. Young men who, although not qualified to enter as 
regular students, have had practical experience in business and find 
themselves in need of more training along specific lines, are allowed 
to enroll in the business school for courses which will help them in 
their work. Programs are arranged to fit their needs. 

The work of the classes in business subjects in the academy is 
under the supervision of the director of the business school, and the 
classes are taught by members of the business-school faculty. 


THE BUSINESS SCHOOL. 


87 


BUSINESS SCHOOL COURSES IN 1922-23. 

GENERAL BUSINESS COURSE. 

(The figures refer to 50-minute periods per week.) 

First Year. —Accounting I, 5; business English, 3; business law, 4; eco¬ 
nomics, 4; office training—class training (one quarter), 6; school offices (one 
quarter) five afternoons weekly. 

Electives .—Public speaking, music, typewriting. 10 

Second year. —Accounting II (two quarters), 5; business organization and 
administration (one quarter), 4; money and banking (one quarter), 4; 
psychology (two quarters), 5; business experience 11 (one quarter), entire time. 

Electives. —Retail selling (one quarter), office management (one quarter), 
review of commercial branches and methods of teaching (two quarters), pub¬ 
lic speaking. 

SECRETARIAL COURSE (TEACHER TRAINING). 

First year. —Business English, 3; business law, 4; dictation practice 10 5; 
secretarial accounting, 5; office training, class training (one quarter), 6; school 
offices (one quarter) five afternoons weekly. 

Electives. —Economics, public speaking, music. 

Second year. —Business organization and administration (one quarter), 4; 
psychology (two quarters), 5; review of commercial branches and methods of 
teaching, 8. 

Electives. —Practice teaching or business experience, 11 secretarial duties, 
office management, retail selling, money and banking. 

DESCRIPTION OF COURSES. 

Business English .—English in business is essential. The work of 
this course is divided between oral and written work with the aim of 
making the use of effective English a matter of habit. A study of 
commercial correspondence and the writing of reports occupies much 
of the time. Assigned readings are given to acquaint students with 
modern business literature. 

Business law. —Contracts, sales of personal property, bailments, 
agency, negotiable instruments, business associations, real estate, in¬ 
surance—these subjects are given some serious study. Huff cut’s “ Ele¬ 
ments of Business Law,” revised edition, is used as a textbook, while 
Clark’s “ Contracts,” Dobie’s “ Bailments,” Mechem’s “Agency,” Tif¬ 
fany’s “ Sales,” and Vance’s “ Insurance ” are used as reference books. 

Accounting .—Two years’ study of bookkeeping, as usually offered 
in secondary schools, is a prerequisite to accounting. 

Accounting is the science of so analyzing and recording all inci¬ 
dents and transactions of a business, estate, or organization that results 

10 Opportunity is given students to use typewriters for any work that may require the 
use of the machines. 

n During the second or third quarter of second year students are sent to near-by towns 
and cities for business experience under supervision. Students will when possible return 
to Hampton Institute for weekly conferences. During the time students are employed 
in this work, assigned reading will be given them along the line of their employment. 



88 HAMPTON NORMA!* AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

may be shown and tendencies indicated. The course in account¬ 
ing is designed to give thorough technical training and to prepare* 
students to undertake the management of the accounting department 
of a business house or other institution. During the second year spe¬ 
cial-studies are made of systems of accounting which are adapted to 
various kinds of business and institutions^ Volume one of Kesters 
work on accounting is the textbook. 

Economics. —The first and second quarters of the first year are 
given principally to a study of economic theory; the third quarter 
is devoted to a study of economic institutions and problems, par¬ 
ticularly those which most directly concern the economic develop¬ 
ment of the South. 

Business organization and administration. —The aim of this course 
is to give a comprehensive knowledge of the economic and legal 
aspects of business associations. 

Money and banking. —Sound banking is most essential for all 
business and a knowledge of what constitutes sound banking prac¬ 
tice and good money is vital to the business men of the future. This 
course aims to present the functions of the modern bank and its 
service to the community. A short history of banking, a study of 
the Federal reserve system, and the problems of American banking 
are included in the course. 

Office training. —The work in office training is divided between 
theoretical work in the classroom and observation in the school 
offices. During the first quarter of the first year six periods weekly 
are devoted to a theoretical study of office routine. This work forms 
an admirable preparation for the work of the second quarter, when 
the students spend five afternoons weekly in the school offices. It 
is usually necessary to send half of a class to the offices in the second 
quarter and the others in the third quarter, alternating, this training 
with other lines of work, 

Secretarial duties. —For the young woman wiio is preparing her¬ 
self to become a private secretary, this course gives familiarity with 
the various duties which such a position entails. The w^ork consists 
of a series of lectures and assigned reading, and reports based upon 
observation and interviews, together with some carefully planned 
assignments. 

Office management. —This course is offered to those who desire 
more thorough and technical training in the direction and manage¬ 
ment of the large business or institutional office. 

Retail selling. —Students who intend to go into the. business of 
merchandising find this course especially planned to familiarize 
them with the details of retail salesmanship a ad the management 
of small retail establishments. 


89 


EDUCATION OF INDIANS. 

Review of commercial branches and methods of teaching .—This 
work is outlined for those students who plan to teach commercial 
subjects. It consists not only of a review of the commercial sub¬ 
jects which are usually taught in high schools but also of methods 
of teaching these branches. It supplements the course in principles 
and methods of teaching. The list of topics includes commercial 
arithmetic, commercial geography, elementary and intermediate 
bookkeeping, shorthand, typewriting, and commercial corre¬ 
spondence. 


EDUCATION OF INDIANS. 

Caroline W. Andrus, 

Indian Correspondent, Hampton Institute. 

The original plans for Hampton Institute did not include stu¬ 
dents other than negroes. In 1878 a band of Kiowas and Comanches, 
who for several years had been prisoners of war at St. Augustine, 
Fla., were to be released. They had been brought to the East as 
the wildest of savages. 

They were taken in chains. They were filled with hate and feelings of 
deepest revenge for the wrongs which they thought they had undergone. One 
chief jumped from the cars and was shot by the guard. Another committed 
suicide on the way. Others would have done so if they had not been closely 
watched. They wore only their Indian blankets and great brass rings in their 
ears. Not one understood English. 

Under the wise and efficient leadership of Capt. R, H. Pratt, how¬ 
ever, they had learned enough of the white man’s road for a few of 
the number to wish to follow it a little further rather than return 
to their western homes. There was no school suited to their age 
and attainments, but, because of the appeal of various persons in¬ 
terested in humanitarian work, 17 were admitted to Hampton,- their 
expenses being met by private individuals, as there was no Govern¬ 
ment fund available for the purpose. 

Of the work at this critical period General Armstrong wrote: 

A few weeks after the arrival of the ex-prisoners T called on the Hon. Carl 
Schurz, then Secretary of the Interior, to suggest that the so far very en¬ 
couraging experience in Indian civilization be tried more fully by bringing 
some younger material, girls especially. I urged that there is no civilization 
without educated women and begged the Secretary to let us try. He decided 
to do so and gave the necessary orders. * * * 

The first party of Indians, the ex-prisoners of war, arrived on April 3, 
1878. In November of the same year 40 boys and 9 girls, chiefly Sioux, came. 
The experiment was watched by many skeptical eyes, but its success was so 
pronounced that “Congress, on the strength of the results of Hampton and 
Captain Pratt’s proved capacity, appropriated funds to start the great work 
at Carlisle.” 



90 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

INDIAN EXPERIMENT PROVES SUCCESSFUL. 

The effect of Hampton’s Indian work, small as it has been in num¬ 
bers, has been important in its influence. From the beginning rec¬ 
ords of each individual have been kept. It has been easy to disprove 
the oft-repeated statement that all educated Indians go back to the 
blanket. 

So marked was the success of the experiment at Hampton Insti¬ 
tute that a public sentiment in favor of Indian education was created. 
From this small beginning has grown the present system of Govern¬ 
ment Indian education. It is now estimated that over 61,000 Indian 
children are in Government and other schools. 

Writes General Pratt: 

Without the open door at Hampton, none of the advanced conditions in 
Indian school affairs of to-day would have become established. It would be 
difficult to locate the critical period in the development of the movement, but 
certainly Hampton and Armstrong (Strong Arm) can claim one of the fore¬ 
most emergency positions. 

From the arrival of the first party of Sioux in 1878 until 1912 
Hampton received an annual appropriation of $167 per pupil from 
the Government for its Indian work. This covered traveling ex¬ 
penses to and from the West, board, clothing, and certain incidentals. 
The Indian scholarships were paid by generous friends of the school. 
The Indian enrollment at Hampton Institute reached its peak in 
1887, when there were 160 present. 

In’1912 this Government appropriation was withdrawn. Few 
there were who believed that any of the Indians who were then in 
attendance would have sufficient courage to remain to work their 
way through school, when they could so easily go to Government 
schools where every expense would be met. The result surprised even 
those who knew the Indians best, for nearly half the number then 
enrolled [81] chose to remain, while 8 new students were admitted 
during the following fall. 

Those who remained at Hampton with no Government assistance 
have gained an appreciation of the value of time, work, and money, 
have learned to look and plan ahead, and have strengthened in pur¬ 
pose in a way that would hardly be possible for students who were 
not working out their oavii salvation. 


Distribution of Indian men trained at Hampton.™ 


Arizona_27 

Iowa_ 4 

Minnesota_ 12 

California 

Kansas ..... 7 

Montana 4 

Colorado_ 2 

Maine 2 

Nebraska 42 

District of Columbia. 1 
Illinois _ 1 

Massarhn setts 7 

New Mexico_ 6 

Michigan 2 

New York 68 


u As of Dec. 31, 1921. 














BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 10 




>,****-»< 


B. CLASS IN WEAVING. 





























BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 11 



A. PRACTICAL GARDENING FOR GIRLS. 

The girls learn how to grow common vegetables and how to can them for winter use. 



B. CLASS IN COOKING. 


































EDUCATION OF INDIANS. 


91 


Distribution of Indian men trained at Hampton —Continued. 


North Carolina 

. 24 

Virginia 

1 

Hawaiian Islands 

North Dakota 

- 31 

Washington 

3 

»» KUJ. JLOICHI vlo 

Pa n a m a 

Oklahoma 

. 53 

Wisconsin 

90 

Unknown 

Pennsylvania 

5 

Wyoming 

1 


South Dakota 

_ 96 

Canada 

9 



By far the largest number of the women students marry and are 
doing what lies in their power to advance their race. Scattered 
over the reservations are many neatly-kept, comfortable, Christian 
homes, where children are reaping the benefit of Hampton’s teach¬ 
ings and getting a better start than their parents had. Others of 
the women students are in the Government school service, as matrons 
or teachers, or in industrial positions, while a few in the outside 
world are earning their living as trained nurses or as stenographers, 
or by following the varied occupations of their Anglo-Saxon sisters. 


Occupations of Indian women trained at Hampton. 12 


Housekeepers _226 

Indian agency and school service- 16 

Domestic service_ 13 

Unmarried and at home_ 10 

Students_ 3 

Teachers_ 6 


Nurses_ t _ 10 

Mission work_ 3 

Clerks and stenographers_ 8 

Miscellaneous_ 12 

Insane_ 2 

Location unknown___:_ 18 


Among the men there is an even greater range of occupations. 
Farming and stock raising claim the largest number, many are fol¬ 
lowing the trades learned at Hampton, some are in the Government 
service, and some are working independently, while still others are in 
the professions. 

Careful records, verified by frequent trips among former students, 
show that 87 per cent have, all things considered, made satisfactory 
records. 

Occupations of Indian men trained at Hampton 


Farmers and stock raisers-257 

Railroad employees, lumbermen, 

farm hands, and laborers- 49 

Independent tradesmen- 50 

Indian agency and school service. 38 
Business men, clerks, and book¬ 
keepers_ 25 


United States employees- 16 

Religious workers_ 17 

Students_ 10 

Miscellaneous_ 25 

Professional, including 6 teachers. 9 

Insane_ 2 

Unknown- 23 


The conditions to which most Indian students return are hard, far 
harder than the average easterner can realize. Many of the reserva¬ 
tions are distant from the railroads, so that supplies are hard to get 
as well as expensive, while in places water is a real luxury. 


As of Deo. 31. 1921. 
47096°—23-7 










































92 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

The standards of the community must also be taken into considera¬ 
tion, and in all too many localities the white people living near the 
Indians are not of a type to prove either helpful or elevating. With 
all these difficulties and many, many more, we are apt to expect far 
more of the Indian than we would of a white student who had en¬ 
joyed equal advantages. 

A white boy who has been in school until he is perhaps 20, and 
in that time has had to master, in addition to the usual studies, a 
new language, and accept an entirely strange system of living, is not 
expected to raise the standards of his home community to any very ^ 
great extent; the Indian is. 

The Indian must not only have acquired a trade and be able to do 
skillful work, but he must also speak English well enough to act as 
interpreter, understand the Bible, and teach in Sunday school, as 
well as be prepared to advise in the councils of his people regarding 
various phases of their legal standing and land questions. And when 
he is unable to fulfill all these requirements we hear that Indian edu¬ 
cation is a failure! 

Indian; women face difficult froblems. 

That the men, as a whole,, keep up to the standards of the school 
better than the women is undoubtedly true. It is the natural and 
inevitable result of a life that brings the man into competition with 
many men and keeps the woman in the home, where she is very 
probably entirely under the dominion of an autocratic person of the 
old type, wdio not only does not wish, but will not allow, any changes 
in the household regime. 

There are some Indian women, however, who, with exceptional 
ability, have made remarkably fine records. These women stand 
out in their communities as leaders and have their part in every good 
work. As is bound to be the case, however, the great majority of 
Indian women lead average lives, and in the end, perhaps, they are 
the ones who count for most. 

TRAINED INDIANS IN DEMAND. 

Since Hampton’s first Indian students returned to their homes, 
conditions have changed in a vast number of ways. There are now 
many schools. English is becoming an intertribal language, reserva¬ 
tions are being broken up, and the sales of land bring white neigh¬ 
bors into every community. 

In spite of all that has been done, however, by the Government 
and by missionaries, there was never a time when the need was 
greater, or when Indian men and women of broad sympathy and 
high moral training could help their people more. 


PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 


93 


Hampton’s part in this work is necessarily small, but the 29 girls 
and boys representing 12 tribes who are now in school, the largest 
number at any time for several years, are preparing themselves to go 
back to their people, to do what they can in the work of uplift for 
the race that so greatly needs their help. 

Many people have the idea that because Hampton Institute no 
longer has a Government appropriation for Indian students it is 
closed to them. Such is not the case, for the school feels that it can 
do more for them in some ways than ever before. 

Hampton Institute does not wish to compete in any way with 
other schools; it merely aims to supplement their work. It desires 
only boys and girls who feel the need of further training in trades 
or agriculture, in domestic science, domestic arts, or normal work, 
and wish to be fitted to teach and lead their own people. 


PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 


A. PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR BOYS. 

Charles H. Williams, 

Head of Department, Physical Education for Boys, Hampton Institute. 

The athletic and recreational life of the young men at Hampton 
Institute consists of participation in intercollegiate and interclass 
competition in various forms of athletic games. 

The intercollegiate competition is conducted in football, basket¬ 
ball, baseball, and field and track athletics. 

Interclass competition includes the four above-named forms of 
competition, and, in addition, tennis and rowing. 

Intercollegiate competition is conducted among the seven schools 
in the Colored Intercollegiate Association of the Middle Atlantic 
States, of which Hampton Institute is a member. 

Occasionally intersectional contests are played with leading col¬ 
leges, as well as with teams representing the leading athletic clubs 
in the East. 

THE ATHLETIC PROGRAM REACHES MAJORITY OF STUDENTS. 

Interclass competition has been developed for all sports. Every 
class has a team and participates in the several class leagues. Keen 
rivalry and most unusual enthusiasm are exhibited during these 
contests. This form of competition not only offers young men an 
opportunity to train for variety teams, but also affords a healthy and 
wholesome form of recreation for the majority of the student body. 




94 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

Physical training was started for young men in the term of 
1910-11. At the beginning it consisted in the different companies of 
the school battalion meeting at the institute gymnasium for 20 
minutes after night school and study-hour once a week, where they 
were given setting-up exercises. 

At present all day-school boys have physical training for two 
regular academic periods each week. This work includes indoor 
and outdoor games, freehand and heavy apparatus, a study of 
graded gymnastics by seniors, also lectures on coaching methods and 
on the development and value of play in physical education. 

The indoor work in physical training terminates in the spring 
with an annual demonstration of the class work which has been done 
during the school year. 

New students are given physical and medical examinations on 
entering school. All students are given medical inspection twice a 
year by the school physician. Through this medium student health 
is closely watched and cases which need attention are discovered 
and immediately treated. 

A regular tliree-year course in physical education is given during 
the summer school held at Hampton; also a playground course 
which has been taken by several hundred teachers from every section 
of the South. This work will doubtless influence the recreational 
life of hundreds of negro schools throughout the South to-day. 

Specimen programs of annual gymnasium exhibitions, given 
with appropriate music, follow: 

Program. 


Wand exercises_ Boys. 

Gymnastic class_:- Girls. 

Apparatus exercises-Boys. 

Tumbling___Boys. 

Willow wand exercises_Girls. 

Csarfas—Characteristic Hungarian folk dance. 

Dumb-bell exercises_;___ Boys. 

Playground demonstration_ Senior girls. 

Lesson_ Senior girls. 


Singing games—London Bridge; Sing a Song of Six¬ 
pence. 

School dance—How Do You Do? 

Games—Three deep; dodge ball. 

Volley ball---Boys. 

Chariot race. 

Human burden race. 

Dutch dance_Boys. 

Fireflies_Girls. 

Solo—An aesthetic dance-Miss Carriebel B. Cole. 

Tarantella—Characteristic Italian folk dance. 














PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 


95 


Program. 


Apparatus work___Boys. 

Games—Simple competitive type-Preparatory girls. 

Zigzag relay. 

Bat ball. 

Dutch clance_Girls. 

Dancing, recreative- First-year girls. 


Old Dan Tucker (American country dance). 
Cschbogar (Hungarian folk dance). 

Eloise gavotte. 

Dumb-bells_ 


Gymnastic lesson 1 - Second-year girls. 

Wand drill (written by Miss Carriebel B. Cole)_Boys. 

Irish jig-Third-year girls. 

Poeme Erotique—Choreographic interpretation (Mel¬ 
ville Charlton)-- Dora Cole Norman. 

Schoolroom work—selected types_Normal-class girls. 


First-grade activities: 

Story play—“ Halloween.” 

Nursery rhyme dances. 

Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat. 

Three Blind Mice; 

Hey Diddle Diddle. 

Classroom exercises: 

Posture work. 

Setting-up drill. 

“ Cotton Needs Pickin’.” 

Characteristic negro eccentric dancing_William Ball and Otis N. 

Greer. 

Scenes from an Imaginary Ballet (Coleridge-Taylor). 

Varsovienne, characteristic Polish dance_Dora Cole Norman. 

B. PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR GIRLS. 

Olive B. Rowell, 

Head of Department, Physical Education for Girls, Hampton Institute. 

Physical education for girls at Hampton Institute has a threefold 
purpose. Two of its aspects deal with the welfare of the individual 
student, while the third considers the prospective teacher or com¬ 
munity leader. The methods by which this purpose is carried out 
may be treated separately. 

The school assumes the responsibility of safeguarding and, so far 
as possible, improving the health of the students in its charge. Upon 
entrance each girl is given a careful medical examination to deter¬ 
mine (1) whether she may be admitted to the school, and (2) what 
defective conditions of eyes, teeth, or tonsils must be corrected, if 
she is to remain. 

1 Aims: Education—quick response; postural—good form; hygienic—vigorous activity; 
social cooperative effort. 














96 


HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


The school physician also determines whether a girl needs a par¬ 
ticular diet or special restrictions as to work or exercise. 

CAREFUL PHYSICAL AND ORTHOPEDIC RECORDS KEPT. 

At the beginning and end of every year, each girl is examined by 
the director of physical education, who keeps a record covering 
height, weight, strength tests, back and foot conditions, and facts 
relating to her general health. 

Special attention is paid to underweight and weak feet, since these 
conditions bear directly on the student’s capacity for work of any 
kind. 

The physical examination also gives the director an opportunity 
to study the needs of the individual girl and to interest her in reach¬ 
ing a higher level of health by controlling her own habits of exercise, 
eating, sleep, study, and recreation. 

A course in physical education and hygiene is required of all stu¬ 
dents in the academy, two periods weekly throughout the 00111 * 86 . 

During the fall and spring the work is given out of doors, and 
includes a variety of games, progressing from the simple forms to 
the organized sports. 

Through the girls’ athletic association interclass tournaments in 
volley ball, field hockey, basket-ball and baseball are earned on, the 
teams meeting after school for regular practice, which is supervised 
by the physical education teachers. 

A voluntary class in games is held on Saturday, particularly for 
students who are taking a work year and other new students who are 
not in the regular physical-education classes. 

RECREATIVE ACTIVITIES ARE STIMULATED. 


A point system of credits for individual participation in recreative 
activities leads to a badge, which is awarded to those who make a 
required number of points^— 

Two badges are used, that for “ first honor,” representing a mini¬ 
mum number of points, while the “ second honor ” is given for earn¬ 
ing an additional number. This system of award has proven a strong 
incentive. Points are given as follows: 


Basket-ball- ; -) ^ . _ 

Baseball >Each r player m a tournament game—50 points. 

Volley ball_1 _ , , ' . • • 

Hockey (field) >Each player on championship team—10 additional points. 

Folk dances, for every six—10 points. 

Group dances, for every ten—10 points; and 
Hikes, for a 4-mile hike—10 points. 






PHYSICAL, EDUCATION. 


97 


In order to receive points for folk dances and games, a test must 
be passed. No one is awarded honors who does not qualify in good 
sportsmanship and good posture. 

Decisions as to qualifications are made by the teachers of physical 
education together with a committee of students. Additions to the 
list of activities for which points are given may be made as desired. 

PREMIUM PLACED ON GOOD SPORTSMANSHIP. 

The pur pose of the outdoor work is to develop a love of wholesome 
recreation, as well as to cultivate that spirit of good sportsmanship 
which includes ideals of honor and fair play, loyalty and cooperation, 
geneiosity to opponents, self-control under stress, and perseverance 
against obstacles. 

The indoor work includes marching, free-standing exercises, pos¬ 
ture tests, apparatus work, games, folk and aesthetic dancing, and 
gymnastic games. 

The indoor work is designed to give training in habits of correct 
posture, skill and grace in movement, and to provide exercise that is 
healthful, pleasurable, and mentally stimulating. 

A demonstration of class work closes the indoor season, and later 
in the spring a May festival is given. 

As opportunities occur during the year, informal discussions are 
used to teach the necessity for a shower bath and change of clothing 
after vigorous exercise, and to emphasize the fact that muscular 
activity is probably the most important single factor in maintaining 
a high level of personal efficiency. 

STATE REQUIREMENTS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION ARE MET. 

Since the State of Virginia, under the West bill, has made physical 
education compulsory in all public schools, any institution that 
desires to have its graduates certified as teachers must provide train¬ 
ing which meets the State requirements. 

To meet this need all students in the normal school must have 
approved courses in (1) school hygiene (36 lectures), and (2) meth¬ 
ods of physical education for school children, three hours weekly for 
one quarter. 

Practice work for both these courses is given during the teacher¬ 
training period at the Whittier training school, where the student 
teachers make tests in hearing and vision, and organize games at 
recess. 

Practical work in physical education activities is also a State 
requirement, w r hich is fully met in the regular classes of the academy. 


98 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

MAY-DAY PROGRAM. 

A program of the May-Day dancing, with music furnished by 
the institute military brass band, follows: 


Entrance march_'- All participants. 

Folk dance—The Crested Hen_ Whittier children. 

Willow wand drill_____Third-year girls. 

Folk dance—Bleking_ Girls. 

Folk dance—Norwegian Mountain March_Girls. 

Folk dance—Highland Schottische_Second-year girls. 

Partner dance—Eloise Gavotte_ Girls. 

Aesthetic dance—Apple Blossoms_Group of three girls. 

May-pole dance_ First-year girls. 


DISCIPLINE. 

Maj. Allen W. Washington, 

Commandant, Hampton Institute. 

The work of the commandant’s office touches practically all de¬ 
partments of the school and all phases of student life. The duties 
are primarily those which relate to discipline. Taken in the broad 
sense of the word, discipline means general helpfulness in every 
way toward the student. 

Discipline does not mean the standing of one in authority over 
a person, compelling that person to obey rules. It means to urge 
the student to see things in proper perspective and to try to prevent 
students from getting into trouble, rather than punishing them after 
the trouble has occurred. Of course, punishment must sometimes 
be administered and as judiciously as possible. 

Discipline is necessary for the best training of students, since 
many of them come from homes where they have been unrestrained 
and where they have not had the fullest appreciation for authority. 
The students’ homes are making great improvement, however, in 
this direction. 

Of course, the World War brought on many changes, and meth¬ 
ods of discipline have changed with other things. This necessi¬ 
tates our dealing quite differently with students. 

It is very interesting to register a new student. This work in¬ 
cludes finding out something about his home, his parents, the size 
of his family, and the general conditions about his home life. It 
is also very interesting to assign him to a room, select a suitable 
roommate, seat him in the dining room with agreeable surround-, 
ings, and place him in the right classes. 












DISCIPLINE. 


99 


Then follows the selection of the student’s work, the discovery of 
what kind of work he has done, and what he wants to do at Hampton, 
the discussion of his plans for the future, and the assignment of 
him to such work and study as will fit into the scheme of his desire. 

All of this interviewing is very strange to a new boy. For the most 
part, however, he enters into the ordeal with enthusiasm. Before 
long he is absorbed in the life of the institution. He starts with a 
new inspiration the work of securing a broader education. 

It is necessary to follow up the new student to see that he gets to 
meals on time, that his room is thoroughly cleaned and aired, that his 
bed is properly made, that his clothes are neatly arranged in his 
wardrobe, his shoes are carefully placed under the side of his bed, and 
that he starts off cheerfully for his work of the day. 

Each student is assigned to a company in the school battalion. 
Every physically fit boy is a member of the Junior Reserve Officers’ 
Training Corps. This organization requires three hours for drill 
each week. This military training is a splendid thing for the boys. 
Every boy wants to be a soldier and the military life appeals to him. 
The school battalion is officered by students. The battalion is an 
excellent field for the development of leadership and cooperation. 

Each student is assigned a seat in the school church and in Ogden 
Hall, which is the common meeting place for the daily devotional 
service at 8.30 in the evening. The religious life at Hampton is the 
center around which all other phases of institutional life revolve. 

STUDENT SELF-GOVERNMENT ENCOURAGED. 

Is is the plan, so far as possible, to have student government. In 
each dormitory there is a janitor, who is responsible for the care and 
proper conduct of the boys in his building. He is given authority 
which must be recognized and obeyed cheerfully. Any infringement 
on the janitor’s authority or any lack of respect for his authority is 
reported to the commandant, the matter is then investigated, and an 
adjustment is made. 

It is believed that it is a wise policy to separate, as much as pos¬ 
sible, the small boys from the larger ones, because the small boys need 
a different kind of training. It is necessary for the young boys to 
retire a little earlier at night, and, if possible, it is a good thing for 
them to sleep a little later in the morning. This is necessary for their 
growth. This policy is also better for disciplinary reasons. 

The smaller boys need some one near them to give them more gen¬ 
eral supervision than is required by advanced students. In order to 
see that right influences are thrown around the younger students, 


100 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

they are given a kind of parental care that is different from that 
which is given older students. This arrangement has proved very 
satisfactory at this institution. 

One of the most influential of the older boys, who is somewhat of 
a big brother to these smaller boys, is in charge of them. He can 
laugh with them, play with them, work with them, and direct them, 
without seeming unkind in any way. We want this same spirit ex¬ 
hibited more and more with these younger boys and with older ones 
as well. 

Much time is spent in advising students who come to consult mem¬ 
bers of the commandant’s office about their homes, their health, their 
school work, their financial situations, their religious life, their future 
plans, and everything that affects the life at Hampton. 

A PREMIUM PLACED ON GOOD HEALTH. 

The health of the students is given careful attention. Students are 
given a thorough physical examination when they enter. If students 
are not in good physical condition, the first thing is to make them 
physically fit for the work which they have to do. Some students 
come with adenoids, some have bad tonsils, others have diseased teeth, 
and some have defective eyesight. All these handicaps must be 
remedied before the student can do his work satisfactorily. The 
students’ rooms must be well ventilated. Boys must take baths at 
the proper time. 

The Hampton officers serve as morale officers and police the 
students when they are outside, as well as inside, of the school grounds 
where there are opportunities for them to get into places of less ele¬ 
vating character. The uniform often saves boys from temptations, 
consequently there have been very few cases of immorality. 

The boys are required to be properly clothed. A long-established 
rule has been that the boys who had sufficient credit balance in the 
treasurer’s office could make application for the clothing which they 
liave needed. The clothing purchased was charged to their accounts. 
In 1921 Hampton gave up this system, as it was very difficult to 
manage satisfactorily. Every boy is now expected to purchase his 
clothing and pay for it in cash. One suit of clothes is furnished by 
the War Department to the members of the Junior Reserve Officers’ 
Training Corps. Any extra clothing which the student wishes, he 
must purchase with his own money. Each student is expected to 
buy a serge suit which is better than the one provided by the United 
States Government. This suit is worn on Sundays and for special 
occasions, thus leaving the suit given by the Government to be used 
every day. This adds greatly to the appearance of the boys. 


DISCIPLINE. 


101 


INTEREST IN STUDENTS EXTENDS BEYOND HAMPTON. 

The boys are followed up not only during the term time, but also 
during the summer vacations. It is important that the institute 
should know at all times what its students are doing. From.year 
to year Hampton has been able to secure in the North places where 
boys can earn money for their next year’s expenses. Each fall letters 
are sent out asking about the boys, how well they have done with 
their work and about their general demeanor, and for the most part 
very satisfactory reports have been received. There are very few 
cases where the boys have not given splendid service during the 
summer. Employers often ask to have the same boys return to 
them the following year. The school officers feel that it is very 
necessary to follow the students right along through the regular 
school courses and then follow them after they have gone out from. 
Plampton. 

MILITARY TRAINING MAKES BETTER MEN. 

Military training is a very important factor in the work of the 
institute, because it teaches the boys teamwork, acting together in 
the execution of orders given by a superior officer, whether student 
or otherwise. To carry out these orders men must exercise obedience 
and self-control—self-control not only of the body, but also of the 
mind. 

The many exercises connected with military training develop 
and strengthen the muscles and make for physical fitness. 

The idea of orderliness and self-respect which comes through 
military training is probably more widely taught in this way than 
through any other medium. Students who have been privileged to 
receive this instruction bear a distinctive mark. 

RESPECT FOR LAW TAUGHT. 

When a student is dressed in uniform he seems very proud and 
conscious of the fact. Having his own reputation as well as that 
of his company at stake he wants to live up to the very best that is 

in him. 

Kespect for law is also another element which enters into the life 
which is influenced by the right kind of military training. As one 
travels over the country he sees all about him a lack of due recogni¬ 
tion of law. There is no successful management of large groups 
anywhere unless there is a proper regard for authority, which is the 
bedrock of the whole structure of national life. 


102 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL, INSTITUTE. 

EXTENSION WORK. 

J. L. Blair Buck, 

Director of Extension Work, Hampton Institute. 

Extension work carries the advantages of the school to people who 
are outside. It aims to aid in the progressive improvement of col¬ 
ored rural communities and schools and to enrich the institute’s 
knowledge of the work of its graduates and the conditions under 
which they work. 

Extension work at Hampton Institute has been carried on 
through the following channels: (1) By sending out teachers and 
workers who attend colored school meetings, conventions, and fairs 
to help carry out their program, and by systematic, informal school 
visiting; (2) by preparing publications, such as Hampton Leaflets , 
which deal with subjects on which people appear to need help and 
on which the institute is prepared to furnish expert advice; (3) by 
displaying educational exhibits at the Virginia State Fair and at 
county fairs: (4) by conducting “extension schools” in the rural 
schools of Virginia to aid teachers and school principals in both 
their intra and extra mural activities; (5) by furnishing pure-bred 
live stock and poultry to colored farmers of Virginia from the Hamp¬ 
ton breeding farms; (6) by employing a colored farm-demonstra¬ 
tion agent in Elizabeth City County, the county in which Hampton 
Institute is located; (7) by giving some financial assistance to the 
supervisor of negro schools in Virginia for the employment of 
special supervising teachers; (8) by getting information about the 
work of Hampton graduates which will be useful in serving them 
and their work through the institute’s placement bureau; (9) by 
establishing and maintaining close contact with numerous public 
and private schools in the South; (10) by assisting in the editing 
and printing of a monthly publication called Negro Progress Rec¬ 
ord as a news letter for the Negro Organization Society of Virginia 
(the president of which is Maj. Allen W. Washington, commandant 
of cadets at Hampton Institute), whose motto is: “ Better Schools, 
Better Health, Better Homes, Better Farms”; (11) by sending out 
educational motion pictures to the colored schools of Virginia; and 
(12) by sending out traveling libraries to schools or individuals for 
a small rental fee. 


TEACHERS STUDY NEGRO LIFE. 

It has been the policy to use the teachers and workers who are 
regularly employed by other departments of the school for most of 
the extension work rather than to employ a number of full-time 
workers in the extension department. 


EXTENSION WORK. 


103 

The variety of extension work calls for the services, for a brief 
length of time, of experts in teaching, cooking, sewing, poultry- 
raising, care of live stock, gardening, farm engineering, and other 
fields of practical knowledge. 

The teachers are also helped by coming into close touch with actual 
conditions in the homes and in the schools from which their pupils 
come. Most of the teachers are not only willing, but also eager to 
take part in the school’s extension work. 

STATE AND REGIONAL MOVEMENTS INAUGURATED. 

The institute’s extension work is guided by the principles of suc¬ 
cessful extension education. Little good can come of work done in 
a community before a real desire for that particular work has been 
created among the people of that community. The people who ben¬ 
efit by extension work, as far as possible, are required to do the work. 

Hampton’s extension work is closely related to life’s problems. It 
aims to increase the desire for and appreciation of good schools 
among adults and children. 

Several far-reaching movements among colored people in the 
South, including the farm-demonstration work, the system of super¬ 
vising industfial teachers, the program of the home-demonstration 
agents, and the Negro Organization Society of Virginia, have been 
started by private funds, administered by or created through Hamp¬ 
ton Institute, and have finally been given public support. 

WHITE AND COLORED CITIZENS KEPT INFORMED. 

Throughout Hampton’s history the extension work has been the 
means of keeping the educational staff in close touch with the home 
life and the occupational life of its graduates. 

The institute’s educational and financial campaign work has kept 
Hampton in close touch with the best white people of the country. 
This campaign work has also spread knowledge of negro progress 
and has gained support for educational work among negroes. 

A FEW LESSONS AT A TIME DRIVEN HOME. 

In 1920 a policy was adopted which provided that fair exhibits 
should deal each year with one or two simple lessons for which there 
appeared to be great need and that the chief object of each exhibit 
should be the most thorough teaching of one or two lessons. “ How 
to tell good layers from poor layers in a flock of hens,” for example, 
was an exhibit which attracted many vistors at the Virginia State 
Fair, held regularly in Richmond. 


104 HAMPTON NORMAL, AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

REACHING THE PEOPLE THROUGH EXTENSION SCHOOLS. 

A brief outline of a three-day extension course, conducted in a 
rural four-room county training school in Chesterfield county, near 
Richmond, Va., will illustrate what is meant by the “extension 
school.” 

A preliminary survey was made to see the school and community 
and to discuss with the county superintendent of schools, the farm- 
demonstration agent, the local school principal, and the supervising 
industrial teacher, what help was most advisable. A tentative three- 
day program, based on the needs which had been made known during 
the preliminary conference, was prepared and sent for suggestions 
and approval to those w T ho had been consulted in the preliminary con¬ 
ference. Posters were then prepared and sent to interested persons. 

The program was based on the needs of the community and was 
divided into (1) Farmers’Day, (2) Everybody’s Day, and (3) Teach¬ 
ers’ Day. 

The Farmers’ Day program consisted of addresses of welcome, a 
discussion of the value of poultry, a demonstration of how to tell the 
good layer from the poor layer, and a demonstration in actually 
building a proper open-front hen house. At the evening meeting 
there were shown motion pictures on balanced education—training 
of head, heart, and hand. 

The program for Everybody’s Day was built around the activities 
of a mothers’ club, which the school principal had been instrumental 
m starting and which was the most active organization in the com¬ 
munity. Speakers discussed the feeding and care of children and 
the testing of eyes, ears, throat, and nose. The mothers’ club pre¬ 
pared and served a luncheon for all the visitors to the conference. 
The relation of the school to the community was explained, and the 
responsibility of the parents for giving their children a fair oppor¬ 
tunity of securing eight grades of schooling was emphasized. 

The program for Teachers’ Day was designed to awaken greater 
professional interest on the part of the teachers in the children and 
in modern methods of teaching. A demonstration was given to show 
how the teacher could organize and direct the play of children. The 
principal of the Whittier Training School at Hampton Institute 
gave a demonstration in teaching a reading lesson to a second-grade 
class. The closing meeting made a final, strong appeal to men and 
women of the community to cooperate with the school principal and 
teachers in building up both the school and the community. 

BREEDING OF GOOD POULTRY AND LIVE STOCK STIMULATED. 

For a good many years, Hampton Institute has attempted to place 
pure-bred poultry, pure-bred hogs, and high-grade dairy calves with- 


GENERAL ASPECTS OF GROWTH. 


105 


ill the reach of Virginia negro farmers. This work has been done 
largely through the negro farm-demonstration agents, who have been 
privileged to get this stock, at about “ meat V prices, for the farmers 
of their several counties. 


EDUCATIONAL MOTION PICTURES CARRIED TO RURAL PEOPLE. 

Several motion-picture stories of student life at Hampton Institute 
have been prepared at various times and have been used in publicity 
work throughout the North or locally at the institute. The extension 
department has been equipped with a portable projector and a set of 
storage batteries. This equipment makes it possible for pictures to be 
carried to remote rural districts where the motion pictures have never 
been seen. 


GENERAL ASPECTS OF GROWTH. 

George P. Phenix, 

Vice Principal, Hampton Institute. 

Those who established schools for the negroes in the sixties and 
afterwards naturally copied the models with which they were fa¬ 
miliar. Hampton was no exception. If her work has differed from 
that of other schools, it is because her founder was familiar in his 
youth with schools of a different type. In the Hawaiian Islands, 
where General Armstrong was born, the missionaries had established 
a type of school in which industrial training and literary training 
had been happily combined. 

The effect of manual labor on character made a profound impres¬ 
sion on Armstrong as a youth, and as a man of maturer years he 
was convinced that a similar type of education was what was most 
needed by the freedmen. That he had no illusions as to the diffi¬ 
culty of his undertaking there is abundant evidence. 

To make his new project succeed General Armstrong had to justify 
it in the eyes of three groups of people: 

(1) The negro race, who would supply the student body; 

(2) The white North, who alone of all people of the country were 
able to finance the venture; and 

(3) The white South, who were skeptical as to the value of any 
kind of education for negroes. 

How far this school of a novel type succeeded in this threefold 
task the following facts suggest. 

WORK UNDER SUSPICION. 

There is abundant evidence that in the early days the negro re¬ 
garded Hampton with suspicion. The students and graduates were, 



106 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

however, effective missionaries of the new idea, and the school has 
never suffered for students. 

In 1872 the numbers had so increased that Army tents were pitched 
along the shore to take care of the overflow from the dormitories. 
Tents were in use for several years, and to this day the enrollment 
has been limited only by the capacity of the buildings. 

The average annual enrollment has been as follows: First decade, 
220; second decade, 550; third decade, 661; fourth decade, 755, fifth 
decade, 878. 

It is significant that of negro schools of secondary and college 
grade, established since 1868, nearly a third have the words industrial 
or agricultural as a part of their corporate titles, and that the pro¬ 
portion of these schools is highest among those founded by negroes 
themselves. 

FINANCIAL AID FROM THE NORTH. 

That the people of the North have believed in the type of train¬ 
ing for which Hampton stands is proved by the generous manner 
in which they have supported it. The average annual current ex¬ 
pense of the school has been as follows: First decade, $28,480; sec¬ 
ond decade, $58,350; third decade, $104,253; fourth decade, $177,722; 
fifth decade, $283,584. 

The same friends who have contributed to current expenses have 
created an endowment fund to assure the permanency of the school. 
The amount of this fund at the close of the last year of each decade 
has been as follows: 1878, $65,819; 1888, $157,940; 1898, $708,360; 
1908, $1,575,471; 1918, $3,069,207. 

SUPPORT OF THE SOUTH. 

The sympathy of the white South with Hampton’s work was abso¬ 
lutely essential. Sympathy has grown with understanding, and the 
school to-day enumerates among its loyal friends southern men and 
women of influence and prominence. The people of Virginia, to a 
greater extent than the citizens of other Southern States, have had 
an opportunity to know Hampton’s work and influence. 

As early as 1874, Doctor RufFner, a distinguished Virginian and 
at that time superintendent of public instruction of Virginia, wrote 
in his annual report: u The prosperity of the institute is amazing, 
and, what is still more wonderful, it is conducted in such a way as to 
give satisfaction to all parties North and South.” 

The financial aid which the Slater fund, the General Education 
Board, and the Jeanes fund have contributed for negro schools in 
southern communities has done much to acquaint southern people, 
especially school men, with this type of education. 


BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 12 










El 

W?\ ■ 1 




I ! 

1 










1 





mg a yy X ill 




IS 




f -» I 


a?*?*!! 


c 'lift “ jP hi pJB 





A. THE ANNUAL ANNIVERSARY CELEBRATION. 

The reception at the residence of the principal. This is attended by many hundreds 
of visiters, including leaders in education, in church, and in state. 



B. CLARKE HALL. 

This building, the Hampton Y. M. C. A., was built by student labor. 



































BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, NO. 27 PLATE 13 



HAMPTON INSTITUTE BATTALION. 

Promptness, alertness, self-control, endurance, and respect for authority are taught. 




THE MUSEUM. 


107 


The interest of the white South in negro schools is growing every 
year. Indeed, all things considered, it has grown in the past as 
rapidly as could reasonably be expected. There are many difficulties 
which persons living outside the South can not comprehend, but 
these are constantly growing less and will some day cease to exist. 

The close of the first half century of Hampton’s history finds the 
1 elation between the races in the South, the progress of negro educa¬ 
tion, and the school itself in a condition which the most extreme 
optimist of 50 years ago could hardly have dared to hope for, and 
there is every reason for facing the second half century with faith 
and courage. 


THE MUSEUM. 

Cora M. Folsom, 

Curator of Museum > Ha/mpton Institute-. 

The museum as a depositor of valuable curios began when the 
institute was less than a year old through the generous response made 
by his mother, then in the Sandwich Islands, to General Armstrong’s 
request for specimens of coral and relics of the old island life. These 
things, rare enough even then to be considered “ museum pieces,” had 
been collected from the different islands of the Micronesian group, 
each for some special value. Many of these were destroyed by fire 
in 1879, but enough remained in 1905 to form the nucleus of a valu¬ 
able collection. 

In 1881 General Armstrong made his first visit to the Indian 
country. While there he was fortunate in being able to purchase 
several suits of the old-time buckskin costume which could not now 
be duplicated. Frequent visits later, made by the present curator, 
have resulted in a fairly comprehensive collection from different 
tribes, of costumes, ornaments, household utensils, baskets, and some 
rare old paintings. In 1905, $5,000 was given in the name of Whitney 
Blake, a former instructor, to prepare a place for these curios, and 
the old library rooms became “ The Blake Indian Museum.” Later, 
Col. E. B. Townsend, Mr. F. C. Briggs, and Mr. Joshua Davis made 
valuable bequests, and by gift and purchase the school has been con¬ 
stantly adding to its collection. Some good mound-builder imple¬ 
ments, among other things, have been acquired. 

When Miss Alice M. Bacon, author of several books on Japanese 
life, returned to this country, she brought back many fine old things. 
Some of these she loaned to the museum, and at her death she gave 
almost her entire collection to it. 


47096°—23-8 



108 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

Articles from China, India, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, and other 
countries have been given from time to time, until now there is al¬ 
most no country that has not contributed its mite. 

A Philippine collection of about 300 specially selected pieces has 
been given by Miss Frances Curtis, of Boston. This covers various 
crafts of many tribes from northern Luzon to the southern islands. 

GROWTH OF THE AFRICAN COLLECTION. 

When the Rev. William I-I. Sheppard, an old Hampton student, 
returned, after 20 years of missionary work among the tribes of 
the upper Congo, he brought back a large collection made with much 
discrimination and labor. About 400 pieces from this collection 
were sold to the institute, 

Other missionaries and travelers in Africa have given generously, 
and so made possible a very inspiring collection, helpful not only 
to Hampton but to students of African ethnology in other places 
and to artists in search of new designs and suggestions. 

These large exhibits demanded increased space, and three rooms 
were added in 1918 for their better accommodation, giving a floor 
space of about 5,400 square feet. The war broke in upon these 
plans, and as yet no cases have been provided for the new rooms, 
and a large part of the collection has to be kept in storage, except 
when taken out for some special occasion. 

Each of the 2,000 articles, or sets of articles, is card catalogued 
with reasonable thoroughness and illustrated in pen and ink and 
color. A set of reference books is always at hand to render first 
aid in case of unexpected questions. To make this material serve 
its best purpose toward broadening the education of the pupils, and 
in case of the Indian and African exhibits stimulating race pride 
and understanding, a variety of devices have been tried with more 
or less success. 

COLORED PEOPLE LACK MUSEUM FACILITIES. 

Little curios which are familiar to every northern child are un¬ 
known to the southern negro and have therefore a peculiar value in 
his scheme of education. This last statement is also true of the 
Indian. 

Our general plan, made to fit existing conditions, is quite unlike 
that of the ordinary museum, and to be of the greatest value must 
have the cooperation of the departments it is designed to help. 

One room in the museum is fitted up with lantern and curtain, 
chairs for a class, and wooden shutters to darken the room by day. 
Here a class may supplement its study by using pictures which 


THE PUBLICATION OFFICE. 


109 


have been selected from the 6,500 cards and slides classified for 
the purpose. 

A teacher of geography wishing to further illustrate her work 
on a particular country may bring her class to the museum, show 
what material exhibits are available, and add to them a selection of 
pictures or slides, or both. 

If a teacher of history wishes to illustrate any special period she 
may do so with pictures or possibly articles associated with the par¬ 
ticular time or event. The same may be done for a class in literature 
or art. 

A telescope that makes the moon and the phases of Venus, the 
rings of Saturn, and the moons of Jupiter something more than a 
tale that is told, can be used almost any night when the weather is 
favorable for out-of-door observation. 

A student taking a trade may add to his instruction in the trade 
school pictures illustrating the manufacture of wire, for instance, or 
the use of concrete in the building of houses and roads. 

The teachers of agriculture find helpful the sets of pictures they 
have themselves arranged for different branches of their work, and 
some of the instructors are very happy in their use of this material. 

For the home-economics school there are collections of fabrics, 
embroideries, and laces, shoes and hats, primitive tools and utensils 
that can be arranged for class work with a little management. 

Occasionally we have given exhibits that include customs as well 
as materials, such as serving Japanese tea or giving little scenes 
from life in other lands. 

In this way, the museum may becpme not only a place for inclosed 
exhibits, but a living interest to break the monotony of classroom 
routine and make a more lasting impression upon the mind of the 
pupil than is possible to the printed page or even the carefully-chosen 
word. 


THE PUBLICATION OFFICE. 

Jane E. Davis, 

In Charge of Publication Office. 

The publication office is a clearing house for the products of the 
printing office, including (1) The Southern Workman , (2) Hampton 
Bulletins —the Catalog, Principal’s Report, Treasurer’s Report, Sum¬ 
mer-School Circular, and occasional bulletins; (3) Hampton Leaf¬ 
lets (76 old and 4 new ones annually), covering academic sub¬ 
jects, agriculture, health, hand work in rural schools, miscellaneous, 
nature study, programs for special occasions, school-and-home-im- 
provement, and southern crops and industries; (4) general school 



110 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

literature, including reprints from the Southern Workman , pam¬ 
phlets on extension work, sketches of graduates, campaign material, 
such as appeals and statements about Hampton and its methods and 
ideals, and pamphlets on race questions. 

The publication office also passes on printed matter required by 
the departments of the institute, including stationery, schedules, 
blanks, programs, circular letters, invitations, notices, etc., and The 
Hampton Student , which is edited by students. 

It is also a center of information for clubs, Sunday schools, and 
individuals, about Hampton and other industrial schools; about the 
work of graduates; Armstrong and his methods; and racial ques¬ 
tions. 

The publication office is the headquarters of traveling libraries for 
rural teachers. 


THE SOUTHERN WORKMAN. 

The Southern Workman , an illustrated monthly magazine, was 
established in January, 1872, by General Armstrong. He made this 
journal a vehicle to carry his ideas abroad and enlist the interest of 
all the people he was able to reach. Its audience has increased 
vastly in size and importance since his day. On account of its 
studies on race questions it has had a growing circulation in libraries, 
schools, and other educational organizations. 


HAMPTON’S INFLUENCE. 


William Anthony Aery, 

Publication Secretary, Hampton Institute. 

The effectiveness of the work of Hampton Institute must be judged 
by the service which its 2,000 graduates and its 8,000 former students 
have rendered to widely scattered communities, not only throughout 
the South and West, but throughout the United States. 

The sons and daughters of Hampton Institute are at work through¬ 
out the United States—and some are even found in Africa, Asia, 
Europe, and the islands of the sea—giving to people of many races 
and classes the manifold message of racial cooperation and good will, 
of “ education for life,” of self-help, of clean, pure homes, and of 
self-sacrificing service. 

LIFE WORK OF GRADUATES. 

A study of the occupations of the negro men graduates shows that 
negroes have been going into various lines of work, including educa- 



Hampton’s influence. 


Ill 

tion, farming, trade work, the professions, and business. The de¬ 
tailed figures are given below. 

Occupations of Hampton Institute negro men graduates 


Educational workers (not along agricultural or mechanical lines)_ 110 

Agriculturists_ 86 

Teachers ___ 40 

Farmers, gardeners_ 46 

Tradesmen _ 181 

Teachers of manual training or trades_ 68 

Following trades as journeymen or contractors—_ 113 

Professional men_ 4 ___ 124 

Business men_ 34 

Clerks, mail carriers, insurance agents, etc_ 124 

Hotel men, railroad employees, laborers, etc_ 90 

Unemployed on account of health_ 9 

Occupations not known_ 79 

Students _ 37 

Dead_ 285 


Grand total_______ 1,159 


A similar study of the occupations of Hampton Institute negro 
women graduates is given below. 

Occupations of Hampton • Institute negro women graduates . 12 


Unmarried_„___ 215 

Teachers -.-- 157 

Other occupations_ 52 

Students _——-- 6 

Married (housekeepers)_ 415 

Teachers _ 119 

Not teaching_ 296 

Married (not housekeepers)--—--1- 73 

Teachers _ 38 

Not teaching_ 35 

Occupations not known---*-■———— : --—— 36 

Dead___--—-- 154 

Grand total-- 893 


These figures are the result of a careful study of the occupations 
of the graduates according to our latest information, whether it has 
come directly from the individuals themselves or through reliable 
reports furnished by others. In the great majority of cases the 
information dates not further back than 1919. Of those whose 
present occupation is not known we are in actual communication 
with many, although for various reasons we are uncertain as to 
what they are doing at the present time. 


12 As of December, 1921. 



































112 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


In classifying our men graduates we have, as a rule, given the 
preference to the line of activity which each names as his principal 
occupation. Many combine other work with that occupation. 

In addition to principals of public schools or institutions and 
teachers in such schools there are included under the heading u edu¬ 
cational work (not along agricultural or mechanical lines)’ school 
inspectors and supervisors, commandants, and disciplinarians, 
Y. M. C. A. secretaries and other social workers, librarians, and 
physical directors. Of these, many, in addition to their teaching, 
are engaged in farming, trades, or other kinds of work. 

THE GRADUATES WORKING IN MANY STATES. 

The men and women from Hampton have gone into many lines of 
work and have scattered themselves broadcast over the United 
States. The details of the distribution of Hampton graduates, se¬ 
cured through the record office, are given below: 

Distribution of Hampton negro graduates .“ 


Alabama _ _ 63 

Arkansas 8 

New Jersey— 62 

New York 98 

California 5 

Colorado 3 

Connecticut 9 

Delaware 8 

District of Columbia 67 

TTloridn 16 

North Carolina 91 

Ohio 30 

Oklahoma _ 9 

Pennsylvania _ 92 

Rhode Island _ 2 

South Carolina 43 

Georgia 34 

Idaho - 1 

Illinois^ _ 31 

Indiana_ 12 

Iowa 3 

Kansas- 5 

Kentucky 17 

Louisiana 4 

South Dakota 1 

Tennessee _ _ 9 

Texas - 5 

Vermont - — — 2 

Virginia 714 

Washington 1 

West Virginia _ 15 

Wisconsin _ _ 2 

Maryland 82 

Massachusetts 35 

Michigan _ 15 

Foreign: 

Africa 1 

Canada 1 

Mississippi - 8 

Missouri 17 

Central America - _ _ 2 

West. Indies __ _ 2 

Nebraska 2 



These men and women who have gone to these widely scattered 
States have acted as educational leaven and have quietly influenced a 
favorable attitude of public opinion toward negroes and Indians. 
As Virginia has naturally received the greatest number of Hamp¬ 
ton graduates, a detailed distribution of more than 700 of these 
is here given. 


13 As of December, 1921. 














































113 


Hampton’s influence. 


Distribution of Hampton graduates in Virginia , by counties.™ 


Aceomae_ 

Albemarle_ 

Amelia _ 

Amherst__ 

Appomattox_ 

Arlington_ 

Augusta _ 

Bath _ 

Bedford _ 

Botetourt_ 

Brunswick_ 

Buckingham 

'Campbell_ 

Carolina_ 

Charlotte_ 

Charles City _ 

'Chesterfield_ 

Cumberland_ 

Dinwiddie _ 

Elizabeth City_. 

Essex _ 

Fairfax _ 

Fauquier _ 

Franklin_ 

Frederick _ 

Gloucester _ 

Goochland _ 

Greensville _ 

Halifax_ 

Hanover __ 

Henrico_ 

Henry _ 

Isle of Wight . 

James City_ 

King and Queen 
King William 


9 

14 24 
1 
1 
1 
15 3 

4 
1 
1. 
1 

5 

3 

16 27 
5 

4 

O 

t) 

17 8 

4 

5 

38 129 

1 

1 

2 

1 

5 
31 

6 
1 
9 
C> 

19 25 
2 
2 
9 

3 


Lancaster_ 

Loudoun_ 

Louisa_ 

Luenburg_ 

Madison _ 

Mathews _ 

Mecklenburg 

Middlesex _ 

Montgomery 

Nansemond _ 

Nelson_ 

New Kent _ 

Norfolk_ 

Northampton 
North u mberl an d 

Nottoway_ 

Orange _ 

Pittsylvania_ 

Powhatan_ 

Prince Edward. 
Prince George . 
Prince William 
Princess Anne . 

Pulaski_ 

Roanoke _ 

Rockbridge _ 

Rockingham _ 

Southampton_ 

Spottsylvania 

Surry_ 

Sussex_ 

Tazewell_ 

Warwick_ 

Washington_ 

Westmoreland . 
York_ 


7 

1 

O 

o 

5 

1 

7 

12 

O 

O 

2 

10 

3 

3 

20 138 
22 

3 

7 

2 

21 20 

1 

10 

2 

4 
0 
o 

22 2S 

3 

4 

23 y 

2 

2 

1 

2 

24 34 
4 
3 
1 


THEIR ACTIVITIES IN THE STATE. 

Nearly even 7 graduate conducts a Sunday school and many of 
them are useful as evangelists. Their relation to the people around 


18 As of December, 1921, given by counties. 

14 Includes 14 in Charlottesville. 

15 AH in Alexandria not in “Arlington County.” 

16 Includes 24 in Lynchburg. 

17 Includes 5 at Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, Ettricks, Va. 

18 Includes 53 at Hampton Institute; GO in Hampton and vicinity, and 15 in Phoebus. 
70 All are located in Richmond. 

20 Includes 85 in Norfolk and vicinity ; 49 in Portsmouth and vicinity. 

21 Includes 12. in Danville. 

22 Includes 24 in Roanoke. 

23 Includes 4 in Franklin. 

24 Includes 33 in Newport News. 












































































114 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

them is not that of a pedagogue to enlightened communities. They 
are usually the best educated of their society and are leaders of its 
thought and give it tone by their wisdom and culture. They seldom 
seek office, but devote themselves to the real welfare of their people. 
They are civilizers rather than mere teachers. 

The graduates generally buy land and have frequent use for their 
agricultural training. As they can teach usually less than half 
the year, this practical knowledge is indispensable. Very few take 
up farming exclusively, as teaching, when it can be had, pays better. 

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK. 

A number of graduates have made important contributions to the 
inauguration and development of the negro farm-demonstration 
work, which has been thoroughly organized by the States Relations 
Service of the United States Department of Agriculture throughout 
the Southern States under the leadership of Dr. A. C. True. 

TRAINED NEGROES ADD MILLIONS TO THE WEALTH OF VIRGINIA. 

Some 30,000 negro farmers in Virginia under the leadership of a 
Tuskegee-Hampton graduate are annually influenced to improve 
their methods of work and secure crop yields. 

Thirty-five local negro farm and home demonstration or extension 
service agents, working in 20-odd counties of Virginia, under the 
States Relations Service, have brought to thousands of negro farmers 
and their white neighbors a new vision of farm life, a clearer insight 
into farming as a business rather than a mere occupation. 

PROFITS FROM EXTENSION WORKERS. 

Through the work of men trained for special service in agricul¬ 
tural extension service, negro farmers have increased their earning 
powers by many millions of dollars and have helped to develop 
their counties and States; negro farmers have increased the average 
corn yield by more than 10 bushels per acre on demonstration plats; 
and have added $20,000,000 per year to Virginia’s returns on the 
corn crop. Similar good records have been made in the cultivation 
of small grains, of hay, forage, and cover crops, and in the develop¬ 
ment of poultry and live stock. 

VIRGINIA NEGROES IMPROVE COMMUNITIES UNDER WISE LEADERSHIP. 

Negro farmers and their wives have also been taught the value 
of community development through common sense and thorough¬ 
going organization. They have been taught to paint and white- 


Hampton’s influence. 


115 


wash their homes; to build sanitary outhouses; screen windows and 
doors against flies and mosquitoes; remove the breeding places of 
injurious insects; install water systems; plant home gardens; and 
conserve food. 

Negroes have been encouraged and taught to save their money, open 
bank accounts, buy labor-saving devices for their homes and farms, 
to own the land which they cultivate, and to mix brains with farm¬ 
ing and all other forms of work. 

The progress made by 826 negro farmers in Nottoway County, Va., 
during the seven years proves that it pays to mix brains with farm¬ 
ing. Land values and crop yields increased at a rapid rate after 
the negro farm-demonstration agents began working among negro 
farmers. 

Land that produced, before the coming of the farm-demonstration 
agents, 10, 12, and 15 bushels of corn to the acre came to yield with¬ 
in seven years 25, 30, 50, and even as high as 76 bushels of corn to the 
acre—the result of applying more thought to farm problems, more 
attention to details, more skill in the selection of seed, better prepa¬ 
ration of a seed bed, and correct methods of soil tillage. 

It is safe to say that in Yirgina the negro farm-demonstration 
agents have helped the farmers increase their yields 50, 100, and 
even 300 per cent. 

The result of the farm-demonstration work and the practical 
application of the Hampton idea of education has been the promo¬ 
tion of friendly relations between white and colored people. The 
work that the colored people did in improving corn yields, increas¬ 
ing the fertility of the land, improving live stock, building school- 
houses, improving churches, and enriching home life, has won for 
the negroes the respect and good will of many white people. 

INFLUENCE OF BOOKER T. WASHINGTON. 

General Armstrong was accustomed to say that if Hampton had 
sent out only Booker Washington it would have paid back to the 
people of this country an equivalent for the thousands of dollars 
they have paid into its Treasury. 

When one considers what Doctor Washington 26 accomplished 
through the establishment of the Tuskegee Institute since 1881; the 
tremendous influence that he exerted upon his own people in favor 
of handwork; the impetus he gave to land buying by negroes 
through his farmers’ conference and the Tuskegee graduates; the 
help he rendered since 1900 through the National Negro Busi¬ 
ness League in right methods of business; the establishment of 


25 Doctor Washington died in November, 1915. 




116 HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 

kindly relations between whites and blacks through his southern 
campaigns, when he addressed hundreds of thousands of both 
races; and his education of the North as to the possibilities of the 
negro, one can but feel that General Armstrong was right in his 
estimate of “value received.” 

SOME PROBLEMS WHICH HAMPTON INSTITUTE IS FACING. 

Like nil other industrial or vocational schools, Hampton Institute 
has had to face constantly the problem of training men and women 
who could influence along constructive lines the formation of a 
sound public opinion with reference to the needs of great masses 
of people who must be trained to earn a living and to live a happy, 

normal, useful life. . < o6 

Doctor Hanus in his study formulated the following needs:' 
(1) Plans for helping graduates, especially men, to find better in¬ 
comes and more attractive conditions in the rural districts and to 
resist the economic and social tide bearing the negro population 
toward the cities; (2) increased supervision of trade graduates dur¬ 
ing their first years out at work; (3) training more teachers of 
agriculture; (4) placing more emphasis upon professional training 
for those who enter teaching; (5) giving to women training m 
business principles and methods; (6) placing more emphasis on 
taste in home furnishing and on modern home sanitation; (<) giv¬ 
ing more systematic instruction in the principles and methods of 
social science; (8) extending the system of business training; (9) 
furnishing more general post-school placement guidance; (10) pro¬ 
viding rural visitation by Hampton teachers; and (11) helping agri¬ 
cultural graduates to get some land and a real start. 


20 Some of these needs Hampton Institute was meeting in 1922.. 






INDEX. 


Academic department, typical courses of study, 25-27. 

Administrative organization, 11-17. 

Aery, W. A., Hampton’s influence, 110-116; the trade school, 57-78. 

Agricultural education, 41-57; program of studies, 48. 

Andrus, Caroline W., Education of Indians, 89-93. 

Armstrong, General , on Indian education, 89; on objectives of the institute, 5-6.' 
Blodgett, W. K., The agricultural school, 41-57. 

Buck, JhL. B., Extension work, 102-105. 

Buckman, Ethel C., The business school, 85-89. 

Business school, 85-89. 

Courses of study, academic department, 25-27; business school, 87-89; normal school, 
27. 

Davis, Jane E., The publication office, 109-110. 

Doerman, H. J., The academy and normal school, 24-36. 

Educational contribution, 1-2. 

Educational philosophy, 4-11. 

Endowment fund, 18-19. 

Entrance requirements, 27-28. 

Extension work, 102-105. 

Financial history, 17-19. 

Folsom, Cora M., The museum, 107-109. 

Gifts for plant, 19. 

Growth, general aspects, 105-107. 

Graduates, distribution, 112-113; occupations, 111. 

Gregg, J. E., History and educational philosophy, 4-11. 

Hanus, P. H., survey of Hampton, 8-10. 

History, 4-11. 

Home economics school, 78-85. 

Income and expenditures, 18. 

Indians, education, 89-93. 

Influence of Hampton, 110-116. 

John, W. C., Educational contribution of Hampton Institute, 1-2. 

Lyford, Carrie A., The home-economics school, 78-85. 

Military training. See Discipline. 

Museum, 107-109. 

Normal school, courses of study, 27. 

Phenix, G. P., General aspects of growth, 105-107. 

Publication office, 109-110. 

Record of students, 20-24. 

Rogers, F. K., Financial history, 17-19. 

Rowell, Olive B., Physical education for girls, 95-98. 

Scoville, W. H., Administrative organization, 11-17. 

Sherman, M. J., Record office, 20-24. 


117 



118 


INDEX. 


Southern Workman, establishment and activities, 109-110. 
Taft, W. H., The molding of public opinion, 3-4. 
Teacher-training work, 33-38. See also Normal school. 
Trade school, 57-78. 

Vocational education, 49-50, 57-78. 

Walter, Sarah J., The Whittier training school, 36-41. 
Washington, A W., Discipline, 98-101. 

Washington, Booker T., influence, 115—116. 

Whittier training school, 36-41. 

Williams, C. H., Physical education for boys, 93-95. 


o 










■ 

", 




















(Continued from page 2 of cover.) 

No. 30. Report of a survey of the University of Arizona. 

No. 37. Statistics of public high schools, 1919-20. 

No. 38. Educational boards and foundations, 1920-1922. Henry R. Evans. 

No. 39. Education in Czechoslovakia. Teresa Bach. 

No. 40. Kindergarten education. Julia Wade Abbot. 

No. 41. Education in Poland. Teresa Bach. 

No. 42. Analytical survey of State courses of study for rural elementary schools. 
C. M. Reinoelil. 

No. 43. Some important school legislation, 1921 and 1922. Wm. R. Hood. 

No. 44. The American teacher. Homer H. Seerley. 

No. 45. Status of certain social studies in high schools. Harry H. Moore. 

No. 4a Record of current educational publications, December, 1922. 

No. 47. Federal aid to public schools. Fletcher H. Swift. 

No. 48. Some industrial art schools of Europe and their lessons for the United 
States. Translated by Florence N. Levy. 

No. 49. Index—Current educational publications, February-December, 1921. 

No. 50. Educational directory, 1923. 

1923. 

No. 1. Diagnosis and treatment of young school failures. Helen T. Woolley 
and Elizabeth Ferris. 

No. 2. A school building program for Washington, N. C. Alice Barrows. 

No. 3. History of the Manual Training School of Washington University, St. 
Louis, Mo. Charles P. Coates. 

No. 4. Junior high schools of Berkeley, Calif. H. B. Wilson. 

No. 5. Recent development of parent-teacher associations. Ellen C. Lombard. 
No. 6. Home-economics education. Henrietta W. Calvin. 

No. 7. Educational work of the Young Men’s Christian Association. Wm. F. 
Hirsch. 

No. 8. Significant movements in city school systems. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 9. Supervision of one-teacher schools. Maud C. Newbury. 

No. 10. The public-school system of Arkansas. Part I. Digest of general report. 
No. 11. The public-school system of Arkansas. Part II. Public-school finance. 
Fletcher H. Swift. 

No. 12. Secondary education in 1921 and 1922. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 13. Art education: The present status. R. B. Farnum. 

No. 14. Public education in Oklahoma. 

No. 15. The Bible in the public schools. Wm. R. Hood. 

No. 16. Statistical survey of education, 1919-20. Florence DuBois. 

No. 17. Educational surveys. E. F. Buchner. 

No. 18. Medical education, 1920-1922. N. P. Colwell. 

No. 19. Agricultural education. George A. Works. 

No. 20. Instruction in music. Will Earhart and C. N. Boyd. 

No. 21. Specimen junior high school progams of study. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 22. Educational work of the Knights of Columbus. Mark J. Sweany. 

No. 23. The social studies in civic education. Edgar Dawson. 

No. 24. Educational extension. Charles G. Maphis. 

No. 25. Recent developments in educational journalism. W. C. Ryan, Jr. 

No. 26. Educational work of the Young Women’s Christian Association. Mar¬ 
garet E. Burton. 

No. 27. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. 

(Continued oil page 4 of cover.) 


LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 


(Continued from page 3 of cover.) 


0 022 205 256 7 


No. 28. 
No. 29. 
No. 30. 
No. 31. 
No. 32. 
No. 33. 
No. 34. 
No. 35. 
No. 36. 
No. 37. 
No. 38. 


No. 39. 


No. 40. 
No, 41. 


Vocational education. Wm. T. Bawden. 

Biennial survey, 1918-1920. 

Americanization program. E. J. Erwin. 

Americanization in the United States. John J. Mahoney. 

Record of current educational publications, May 1, 1923. 

Educational hygiene. W. S. Small. 

Higher education. George F. Zook. 

Bulletins of the Bureau of Education. E. A. Wright. 

Rural education. Katherine M. Cook. 

Progressive tendencies in European education. C. W. Washburne. 

Main streets of the Nation. A series of projects on highway trans¬ 
portation for elementary schools. Florence C. Fox. 

Consolidation and transportation problems. Report of the second na¬ 
tional conference on consolidation of rural schools and transportation 
of pupils, Cleveland, Ohio, Feb. 26, 1923. 

Report of a survey of the State institutions of higher learning in 
Kansas. 

Consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils. J, F, Abel. 















































